Abstract
Caves have always inspired human imagination and Ancient Greece was no exception. This chapter focuses on the rituals performed in sacred caves in worship of Pan and the Nymphs. Their worship, described vividly in the Dyskolos of Menander, required corporeal effort to access the sanctuary, for sacrifice, preparation and the communal consumption of food and drink by the participants, as well as the performance of ritual dances, probably accompanied by chanting and music. This chapter considers not only how the visual and aural qualities of these places inspired ancient thought, but how they stimulated or deprived human senses and made individuals believe that they were the abodes of sacred spirits. Pan and the Nymphs have special connections to sound and resonance, and there appears to be a reciprocal connection between ritual performances and the sonic qualities of grottos. Yet most archaeological research in caves of Pan and the Nymphs has focused on the visual characteristics of the sites and makes no reference to their aural qualities. This chapter suggests that acoustic survey should be reinforced at these sites, to gain an understanding of whether or not sound was a determining factor in their recognition as sacred places appropriate to this cult.
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Notes
- 1.
For example, caves Pech Merle, Les Trois Frères and Le Tuc d’Audoubert (France); Cogul, Gasulla Ravine, Minateda, Jimena de Jean-Cueva de la Graja, Tivissa-Font Vilella, Cueva de Los Letranos and Cantos de la Visera (Iberian Peninsula); Cave Bhimbetka (India); etc.
- 2.
Pan is the god of the wild, of shepherds and flocks, of nature and of mountain wilds and rustic music, and is also the companion of the Nymphs. The god was depicted as a goat-legged man with horns and a goat’s tail, a thick beard, snub nose and pointed ears.
- 3.
Also the caves of Melissani in Cephalonia, Mpoliatso in Lefkada, Polis in Ithaca, Paliambela in Vonitsa, etc.
- 4.
Caves in Attica dedicated to Pan and the Nymphs have been discovered on the north-west slope of the Acropolis in Vari; at Dafni, Marathon and Eleusis; on Mount Penteli, Mount Parnitha, Mount Hymettus, etc.
- 5.
All four properties were not necessarily needed for selection of a cave as sanctuary for the Nymphs, but they were influential in the selection process (Pierce 2006: 93–94). Larson (2001) considers them loci amoeni (‘pleasant spots’) and gives us a number of examples from the ancient sources that verify this characterisation.
- 6.
Similar ritual processions to the Nymphs (and Pan) are depicted on votive reliefs nos. 1966, 3874, 2796 and 2798 and on the votive plaque from the Nymphs’ cave in Pitsa, Corinth, no. 16464 (540 BC), in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
- 7.
Theocritus, in his Idylls (I.15–20), mentions that it is not appropriate to play the syrinx at noon for fear of Pan, as his hunt is over and he is tired and rests. Noon is typically a silent and motionless part of the day, and producing noise in the realm of Pan while he is at rest is extremely risky. So the noisy approach of the celebrants to the cave sanctuary probably took place early in the morning or in the evening.
- 8.
Pausanias (I.32.7) states that the stalactites and stalagmites inside the cave sanctuary in Marathon, Attica, resemble Pan’s herd of goats.
- 9.
In the late first century AD, Crinagoras (Anthologia Palatina, 6.253) gives a rather thorough account of the landscape around Bassai in Phigalia (Peloponnesus). While recording a gift of thanks by a hunter named Sosandros, the poet describes the caves of the Nymphs as ‘with many springs’ (ἐυπίδακες) and the cabin of Pan as ‘echoing’ (ἠχηεσσα).
- 10.
Ιn the Orphic Hymn to the Nymphs (lines 6–10), the Nymphs are called ‘lovers of grottoes, wandering the air; you of the springs, roaming ones, dew clad/ with steps; visible, invisible, you of the glens, with many blooms; leaping with Pan on the mountains as you cry out; flowing from rocks,/ clear-voiced, buzzing like the bee, mountain haunting’.
- 11.
Similarly, Pausanias (I.28.4), in his account of the same incident, prefers to use the terms ἐντυχόντα (‘to meet’), φάναι (‘to speak’) and ἀγγελίᾳ (‘announcement’): terms which are all connected with sound and oral communication.
- 12.
We could describe the sound of echo as an ‘earcon’ of classical antiquity: the aural analogue of a visual icon. Earcon in computer science is a sonic event that contains special symbolic meanings. As such, the sound of an echo in the Greek countryside would have represented an ‘earcon’ denoting Pan’s presence.
- 13.
According to Eliade (1959, p. 26–27), holy places exist naturally in the world, and they are not created but rather discovered by humans. Holy places are revealed as qualitatively different from surrounding areas by special signs.
- 14.
Norbert Casteret (1938, p. 97–98), one of the fathers of modern speleology, describes his first visit into a cave as follows: ‘Flat on my stomach, with beating heart, I crawled into my first real cavern. It was the dry bed of an underground water-course, and I had to crawl on the soft clay bottom. The cool air, the damp soil and soundless blackness made a striking contrast with the world outside. They created an atmosphere of their own; I was entering another, a mysterious world, which scared me at the same time that it filled me with a mystical enthusiasm… From this rose a new sound, since grown familiar to my ears, the murmur of a brook in an unknown lower level. Surprise and delight riveted me to the spot’.
- 15.
According to Kahn (1999, p. 5), ‘Sound’s life if too brief and ephemeral to attract much attention’ and ‘not until recently have there existed the conceptual and technological techniques available to sustain a full range of sounds outside the unstable environs of their own time’.
- 16.
The same rule seems to apply to the distribution of artefacts in the interior. In several cases the principal area of prehistoric activity seems actually to have been focused in the deepest parts of the cave.
- 17.
Reverberant sound is informative about the size and layout of the surrounding environment. The idea of experiencing a place as sensation has already been supported by Feld (1996) when writing on the Kaluli, New Guinea, who have developed acute hearing for locational orientation.
- 18.
I wonder whether there is a similar connection between the hoofed god Pan and the percussive sounds performed in caves during Pan rituals.
- 19.
One of the most important features in Tibetan sacred geography is the concept of gnas; gnas translates as ‘place’, but it has a more active meaning of ‘to abide’ or ‘abode’. Landscape features are the abode of spirit forces and deities of all kinds. According to Aldenderfer (2005, p. 10–11), these entities may contribute their power to these landscape features, creating gnas-chen (‘power-places’), whose power literally saturates the surrounding areas.
- 20.
‘Auralisation’ is the term used within acoustics for the process of producing a digital recreation of the acoustics of a space or structure.
- 21.
Corbin (1998) uses the term ‘auditory landscape’ rather than ‘soundscape’. In Sophocles’ Philoctetes (lines 1453–1462), the castaway hero’s description of the isolated cave, which has long been his home, focuses not only on its visual characteristics but also on the sound effects experienced inside: ‘…in the inmost part of my cave, my head was drenched with the lashings/ of the sound winds, and you Hill of Hermes, which often in answer to my voice, sent me back a groan as I labored under the storm’ (trans. Larson 2001, p. 45).
- 22.
According to Barry and Satler (2007, p. 32), the level of background noise determines the quality of an acoustic arena and the reliability of its auditory channels. A silent environment creates the best auditory channel, a noisy environment the worst.
- 23.
Compare the ritual production of noise during Pan rituals over the natural soundscape of caves to the synesthetic metaphor dulugu ganalan of the Kaluli of Bosavi, Papua New Guinea. According to Feld (1996, p. 100), for the Kaluli, the soundscape of the rainforest prevails above all sounds. In order for music to be performed and heard, the Kaluli must dulugu ganalan (‘lift-up-over-sounding’).
- 24.
The interplay between Pan and the Nymphs’ dance and music and Εcho is described in the Homeric Hymn to Pan (lines 20–25): ‘At that hour the clear-voiced (“λιγύμολποι”) nymphs are with him/ and move with nimble feet, singing by some spring of dark water (“πύκα ποσσίν… μέλπονται”)/ while Echo wails about the mountain-top (“κορυφὴν δὲ περιστένει οὔρεος Ἠχώ”)/ and the god on this side or on that of the choirs (“ἔνθα καὶ ἔνθα χορῶν”), or at times sidling into the midst,/ plies it nimbly with his feet (“πυκνὰ ποσὶν”)….’
- 25.
‘Archaeoacoustics’ refers to the study of sound in archaeological contexts. This can be done by exploring natural sounds (and acoustics) at monuments and other sites or by investigating and measuring the acoustic parameters of a place using electronic instruments.
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Yioutsos, NP. (2019). Pan Rituals of Ancient Greece Revisited. In: Büster, L., Warmenbol, E., Mlekuž, D. (eds) Between Worlds. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99022-4_7
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