Abstract
The first chapter introduces the reader to the problem of human suffering and how its resistance to conceptualization has led to the lack of any emotional engagement with the context in which people live and the subjective experiences of physical and mental suffering. To engage with what shapes local reality and helps us to understand the actual experience of suffering and the specific factors that give rise to it is argued that we need to recognise the need for a broader, more holistic set of interpretations, no matter their disciplinary origin.
To better understand how suffering makes people change the way they think, feel and act it is argued that we need to engage with the emotional consequences of suffering and the environment within which it is experienced. This is because it enables us to better understand and anticipate the diversity of beliefs and behaviour by engaging with the subjective.
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Notes
- 1.
See also Anderson , R. E., (2013): “...From the data presented on global suffering...it is evident that most suffering, especially in non-affluent countries, results from illness, injuries, disability and poverty, especially poverty-related scarcities. The scarcities are forces largely under human control through social institutions.”
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
Cassell, E., (2004: 274).
- 7.
- 8.
Cassell , E.J., (1982: 639-645).
- 9.
Kleinman, A., (1988); Geras, N., (1998); Martin-Baro, I., (1994a, b, c).
- 10.
Malpas , J., & Lickiss, N., (2012:1).
- 11.
- 12.
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Kleinman, A., (1995b: 181–191).
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- 15.
- 16.
Gautier , A., & Sabatini Scalmati , A., (2010: 132).
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Gautier, A., & Sabatini Scalmati, A., (2010: 32).
- 18.
- 19.
Guinote , A. & Vescio , T.K., (2010: 3).
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Lammers , J; Stapel , Diederik A. (2009: 279-289).
- 22.
Fiske , S.T., (1993).
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- 24.
Post conflict these communities have become a part of a single national narrative of events, people, institutions, culture and politics, an undertaking of massive simplification that not only distorts the past but threatens to impoverish its future. Neglect, indifference and forgetfulness mean that its past and the denial of that past are rapidly eroding the importance of what happened there. Yesterday’s killings are perpetuated in today’s oblivion. The urge to remember and commemorate is tightly bound with the need to suppress and forget. See Wilkinson , I., (2004: 113-121).
- 25.
As Adorno has stressed, stereotypes are not merely opposed to experience but highly resistant to it.
- 26.
Kleinman , A. and Kleinman , J., (1997a, b:11–15) in Kleinman, A., Das , V., & Lock , M. (eds.) (1997a, b). See also the argument put forward by Sen , A., (1998) for the importance of individual case studies as a means by which we are able to move beyond “cold and often inarticulate statistics of low incomes” and look in detail at the various ways in which agency— “the capabilities of each person”—is constrained.
- 27.
It has also made it difficult to isolate the legacy of the political violence from the social, psychosocial, physical and economic context in which it occurred.
- 28.
Guinote , A. & Vescio , T.K., (2010: 158ff).
- 29.
See Kleinman , A., et al., (1997a, b: ix) Words Associated with Common Types of Suffering include: social exclusion, discrimination, ostracized, persecution, incapacitation, disability, shame (self-ostracized), distrust, relative deprivation, subjugation, atrocity, homelessness, unemployment, social rejection , discrimination, bullied , disability, blindness, deafness, bedridden, hunger, war, civil violence, survival risk factors in Anderson , R. E., (2013:11).
- 30.
Kleinman et al. (1997a, b: ix); For Wilkinson (2005a, b) social suffering is defined as “.... suffering produced by social forces, rendering the victim without a sense of being human and worthwhile.” Kleinman (2009b) also defined social suffering as the suffering caused by social forces, but emphasized social institutions, global systems, and culture as the culprits. For Kleinman , A. & Wilkinson, I., (2016: 14ff) any analysis of “...the social meaning and bounds of suffering requires that we recognise from the outset that we are dealing with a profoundly moral experience. Suffering takes place as an intensely violent and harmful assault on human personhood.”
- 31.
For the purposes of this study the definition of stress is as follows “...[A]n interaction of several variables involving a particular kind of relationship between a person and the environment which is appraised by the person as being taxing or exceeding coping resources and endangering well-being” (Schlebusch 1998: 266) . The distinguishing characteristics of this definition of stress are as follows:
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Stress is an ongoing process (interaction) and as such can be said to be dynamic
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There are distinct domains involved in the process:
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The domain of the environment
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The domain of the person
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Awareness and appraisal of stress by the individual(s) in the process (typically exhibited as strain symptoms).
Strain is defined as any “......deviation from the normal state or responses” of an individual. Symptoms of stress/strain could be psychological, physiological or behavioural. See French , J. R. P., Jr., Caplan, R. D., & Harrison, R. V. (1982).
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- 32.
Guinote , A. and Vescio , T., (2010: 97-107).
- 33.
- 34.
For the state the nature of social suffering is inconsistent with established categories because it simultaneously involves health, welfare, legal, moral and religious issues. For example, trauma and pain give rise to health conditions; even though they are also political and cultural matters. See Kleinman , A., et al. (1997a, b: ix).
- 35.
Fiske (1993).
- 36.
- 37.
- 38.
Marshall, M and Marshall, E., (2012: 56).
- 39.
Dean , C.J., (2010: 181ff).
- 40.
LaCapra , D., (2001: 96). In the original text LaCapra was referring to trauma and not suffering, but I have adapted this slightly because the two concepts are so inextricably related and have many of the same tendencies.
- 41.
- 42.
For Geras , “...There is a tendency to objectify human suffering and extreme want, to make them part of an objective as it were natural background, emptying them of their subjective content as the lived experience of other human individuals.” Geras, N. (1998: 131).
- 43.
- 44.
- 45.
- 46.
- 47.
- 48.
- 49.
Guinote, A. & Vescio , T.K., (2010: 97).
- 50.
This includes: (1) physical resources such as food, water, shelter, safety (2) economic resources such as money, material goods, employment opportunities (3) social resources, including acceptance, a sense of control, social support and a trusting social environment .
- 51.
Guinote , A. & Vescio , T.K., (2010: 178).
- 52.
- 53.
Guinote, A. & Vescio , T.K., (2010: 157).
- 54.
Fiske , S.T. & Depret, E., (1996) in Hewstone, M., et al., (Eds.), (1996); Weicke, M. & Guinote , A. (2008).
- 55.
Fiske, S. T., (1993).
- 56.
Fiske, S. T., (1993).
- 57.
Tracy , J.L., & Robins , R.W., (2003).
- 58.
Tracy, J.L., & Robins, R.W., (2003).
- 59.
Keltner , D., Gruenfeld , D.H., & Anderson , C. (2003).
- 60.
Guinote , A. & Vescio , T.K., (2010: 106).
- 61.
- 62.
Van der Kolk, B., (2014: 137).
- 63.
Lever , J. P., (2008).
- 64.
- 65.
- 66.
Volkan , V. (2018: 10) in Trauma, Trust and Memory, Hamburger , A., (ed) (2018)
- 67.
- 68.
- 69.
Winter D. Du Nann & Leighton, D.C., (2001:99).
- 70.
For the purposes of this book structures are understood as those “…social relations and arrangements - economic, political, legal, religious, or cultural - that shape how individuals and groups interact within a social system. These include broad-scale cultural and political-economic structures such as caste, patriarchy, slavery, apartheid, colonialism, and neoliberalism, as well as poverty and discrimination by race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and migrant/refugee status. These structures are violent because they result in avoidable deaths, illness, and injury; and they reproduce violence by marginalizing people and communities, constraining their capabilities and agency, assaulting their dignity, and sustaining inequalities.” Rylko-Bauer , B. & Farmer , P., (2016: 47-75) in Brady & Burton, L.M., (2016) (Eds.).
- 71.
- 72.
- 73.
Green , L., (2004:319-20).
- 74.
- 75.
Hickel, J., (2017).
- 76.
Bourgois , P. & Scheper-Hughes , N., (2004: 318).
- 77.
Walter , N., Bourgois, P., & H. Margarita Loinaz (2004: 1167).
- 78.
- 79.
Biehl , J. & Moran-Thomas , A., (2009).
- 80.
Rylko-Bauer , B. & Farmer , P., (2016: 47).
- 81.
There are three principles of distributive justice: (1) merit-based justice calls for allocating resources according to individual productivity, effort or competence. (2) Need or communitarian justice calls for allocating resources according to need - based on poverty, past grievances and discrimination. (3) Equality – everyone should receive the same amount. See Hoffman , M. L., (2000: 226).
- 82.
- 83.
Staub , E., (1989: 45)
- 84.
King , Preston (2000: 55).
- 85.
Ignatieff , M., (1999:13).
- 86.
- 87.
Leatherman , T., (2011: 33).
- 88.
- 89.
- 90.
See also Buckley-Zistel , S. (2006).
- 91.
Carlson , N. (2012).
- 92.
For the individual unburdened by past injustices the natural sense of time is biased toward the future. But as Amery writes: “...Future is obviously a value concept . What will be tomorrow is more valuable than what was yesterday. That is how the natural feeling of time will have it.” Amery , J., (1980: 76).
- 93.
This is not unique to people living in extreme conditions. For Watkins , & Shulman “...all human beings have an enormous capacity to live in states of denial, dissociation, forgetfulness and ideologies of the dominant culture .” Watkins, M. & Shulman, H. (2008: 131).
- 94.
Olick , J.K., (2007: 31).
- 95.
Watkins , M. & Shulman , H. (2008: 85).
- 96.
Santner , E. (1990: 157).
- 97.
Amery , J., (1980:72).
- 98.
From: Theses on the Philosophy of History, In Arendt , H. (1999: 253-264).
- 99.
- 100.
Gautier , A., & Sabatini Scalmati , A., (2010: xxii).
- 101.
Gautier, A., & Sabatini Scalmati, A., (2010: xix).
- 102.
Weil , S. (2005: 43)
- 103.
Gautier , A., & Sabatini Scalmati , A., (2010: xv).
- 104.
See for example, Bourgois , P., (2009); Gautier, A., & Sabatini Scalmati, A., (2010: xix).
- 105.
Bourdieu , P., (2000).
- 106.
Connolly , P. & Healy , J., (2004).
- 107.
Rylko-Bauer , B. & Farmer , P., (2016: 47).
- 108.
Morgan , K. & Bjorkert , S.T., (2006: 448).
- 109.
- 110.
This kind of detachment from past injustices and dangerous memories is a vital factor in the development of social amnesia. Russell Jacoby as “...society’s repression of remembrance of its own past.” Jacoby , R., (1975).
- 111.
Lepore, L.G. & Revenson, T., (2006: 27) in Calhoun , L.G. & Tedeschi, R.G., (2009).
- 112.
The concept of abjection is a powerful neural network combining cognitive and behavioural components, sensory images of past experience, recollection of strong aversive emotions and over- arousal (Folensbee, 2008) . To be in a state of abjection is to feel unworthy , unlovable, and to be in utter despair about the situation ever changing. Implicit memories of helplessness, dread, horror and rejection are activated neurologically and communicated in posture, voice and words. See Kristeva , J., (1982: 1-4).
- 113.
Brudholm , T., (2008: 17)
- 114.
Brudholm, T., (2008: 17).
- 115.
Murphy , J., 2003: 115).
- 116.
Zolkos , M. (2007): 23-38.
- 117.
- 118.
Leatherman , T., (2011: 33).
- 119.
- 120.
- 121.
Lammers , Joris; Stapel , Diederik A., (2009).
- 122.
Indeed, not having contingent control over one’s environment is associated with severe negative consequences, as documented in research on learned helplessness (e.g., Abramson , Seligman , and Teasdale 1978; Seligman 1975). Furthermore, work has linked low power to feelings of general uncertainty (Anderson and Galinsky 2006) , which itself is often aversive (e.g., Weary et al. 1993). Being powerless is also associated with less access to physical (e.g., material wealth) and social rewards compared with being powerful (e.g., recognition) See Buss , D.M. and Malamuth , N., (1996).
- 123.
Wadsworth , M.E., (2012).
- 124.
See Guinote , A. & Vescio , T.K. (2010: 432-3).
- 125.
Davidson , W. B., & Cotter , P. R. (1989).
- 126.
Current definitions of social psychology are usually similar to the one offered by Brehm , S.S., et al. , (1996: 6) which is “.... the scientific study of the way individuals thinks, feel, desire and act in social situations.”
- 127.
- 128.
In the rural Andes of south-central Peru this is known as individualismo and will be discussed in some detail in subsequent chapters.
- 129.
Frankl , V. (1985: 67ff).
- 130.
Levinas , E., (2006: 78ff).
- 131.
Agamben , G., (1999: 105).
- 132.
“Suffering for Frank , A.W. is “...the unspeakable as opposed to what can be spoken; it is what remains concealed, impossible to reveal…. At the core of suffering is the sense that something is irreparably wrong with our lives, and wrong is the negation of what could not have been right.” Frank, A.W (2001: 355).
- 133.
Frankl , V., (1994).
- 134.
Rozynko , V. & Dondershine , H.E.(1991).
- 135.
Staub , E., (1989: 17). In the rural Andes of south-central Peru this is known as conformismo and will be discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters.
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Bowyer, T.J. (2019). The Complexities of Human Suffering. In: Beyond Suffering and Reparation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98983-9_1
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