Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Disorders of Written Expression

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities

Part of the book series: Current Clinical Psychiatry ((CCPSY))

Abstract

Writing is a complex task that requires the integration of cognitive and motor skills, specifically language functions, executive functions, and graphomotor output. Writing difficulties are relatively common in childhood and adolescence and may reflect difficulties with any of the contributing elements. In this chapter, we review the typical developmental trajectory of writing skills. We also describe the type of writing difficulties associated with common neurodevelopmental conditions, including developmental dysgraphia, dyslexia, language disorders, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), nonverbal learning disorder (NLD), and writing anxiety. We discuss the assessment of writing disorders and how test results may inform the identification of appropriate interventions, providing an illustrative case study.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Assouline SG, Foley Nicpon M, Whiteman C. Cognitive and psychosocial characteristics of gifted students with written language disability. Gift Child Q. 2010;54(2):102–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Baddeley A, Gathercole S, Papagno C. The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychol Rev. 1998;105(1):158–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.1.158.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Barnes JL, Lombardo MV, Wheelwright S, Baron-Cohen S. Moral dilemmas film task: a study of spontaneous narratives by individuals with autism spectrum conditions. Autism Res. 2009;2(3):148–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Berninger VW, Abbott RD, Jones J, Wolf BJ, Gould L, Anderson-Youngstrom M, Shimada S, Apel K. Early developmental of language by hand: composing, reading, listening, and speaking connections; three letter-writing modes; and fast mapping in spelling. Dev Neuropsychol. 2006;29(1):61–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Berninger VW, Nielsen KH, Abbott RD, Wijsman E, Raskind W. Writing problems in developmental dyslexia: under-recognized and under-treated. J Sch Psychol. 2008;46(1):1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.11.008.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Berninger VW, Richards TL, Abbott RD. Differential diagnosis of dysgraphia, dyslexia, and OWL LD: behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. Read Writ. 2015;28(8):1119–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9565-0.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Berninger VW, Swanson HL. Modifying Hayes and Flowers’ model of skilled writing to explain developing writing. In: Butterfield EC, editor. Advances in cognition and educational practice. Children’s writing: toward a process theory of the development of skilled writing, vol. 2. Greenwich: JAI Press; 1994. p. 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Burden R. Dyslexia and self-concept: seeking a dyslexic identity. London: Whurr; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Brown HM, Klein PD. Writing, Asperger syndrome and theory of mind. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41:1464–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Carretti B, Motta E, Re AM. Oral and written expression in children with reading comprehension difficulties. J Learn Disabil. 2016;49(1):65–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414528539.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Casas AM, Ferrer MS, Fortea IB. Written composition performance of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Appl Psycholinguist. 2013;34(3):443–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Connelly V, Campbell S, MacLean M, Barnes J. Contribution of lower order skills to the written composition of college students with and without dyslexia. Dev Neuropsychol. 2006;29(1):175–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Di Brina C, Averna R, Rampoldi P, Rossetti S, Penge R. Reading and writing skills in children with specific learning disabilities with and without developmental coordination disorder. Mot Control. 2018:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1123/mc.2016-0006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Dockrell JE, Ricketts J, Charman T, Lindsay G. Exploring writing products in students with language impairments and autism spectrum disorders. Learn Instr. 2014;32:81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.01.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Espen C, Shin J, Deno SL. Identifying indicators of written expression proficiency for middle school students. J Spec Educ. 2000;34(3):140–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Feder KP, Majnemer A. Handwriting development, competency, and intervention. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49(4):312–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00312.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Fitzgerald J, Shanahan T. Reading and writing relations and their development. Educ Psychol. 2000;35(1):39–50. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Gansle KA, Gilbertson DN, Der Heyden V. Elementary school teachers’ perceptions of curriculum-based measures of written expression. Pract Assess Res Eval. 2006;11(5):1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Gansle KA, Noell GH, VanDerHeyden AM, Slider NJ, Naquin GM, Hoffpauir LD, Whitmarsh EL. An examination of the criterion validity and sensitivity of alternate curriculum-based measures of writing skill. Psychol Sch. 2004;41:291–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Gersten R, Baker S. Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: a meta-analysis. Elem Sch J. 2001;101(3):251–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Goulardins JB, Rigoli D, Licari M, Piek JP, Hasue RH, Oosterlaan J, Oliveira JA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and developmental coordination disorder: two separate disorders or do they share a common etiology. Behav Brain Res. 2015;292:484–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Graham S, Berninger VW, Abbott RD, Abbott SP, Whitaker D. Role of mechanics in composing of early elementary school students. A new methodological approach. J Educ Psychol. 1997;89(1):170–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Graham S, Harris K, Chorzempa B. Contribution of spelling instruction to the spelling, writing and reading of poor spellers. J Educ Psychol. 2002;94(4):669–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Grigorenko EL. Rethinking disorders of spoken and written language: generating workable hypotheses. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2007;28(6):478–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Hauth C, Mastropieri M, Scruggs T, Regan K. Can students with emotional and/or behavioral disabilities improve on planning and writing in the content areas of civics and mathematics? Behav Disord. 2013;38(3):154–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Hepner C, McCloskey M, Rapp B. Do reading and spelling share orthographic representations? Evidence from developmental dysgraphia. Cogn Neuropsychol. 2017;34(3–4):119–43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Hooper SR. The language of written language: an introduction to the special issue. J Learn Disabil. 2002;35(1):2–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Hooper SR, Swartz CW, Montgomery JW, Reed MS, et al. Prevalence of writing problems across three middle school samples. Sch Psychol Rev. 1993;22(4):610–22.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Hooper SR, Swartz CW, Wakely MB, de Kruif RE, Montgomery JW. Executive functions in elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. J Learn Disabil. 2002;35(1):57–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Weaver AL, Barbaresi WJ. The forgotten learning disability: epidemiology of written-language disorder in a population-based birth cohort (1976–1982), Rochester, Minnesota. Pediatrics. 2009;123(5):1306–13. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2098.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. King D, Dockrell JE, Stuart M. Event narratives in 11–14 year olds with autistic spectrum disorder. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2013;48(5):522–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Kronenberger WG, Dunn DW. Learning disorders. Neurol Clin. 2003;21(4):941–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Kushki A, Chau T, Anagnostou E. Handwriting difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorders: a scoping review. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41(12):1706–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Learning Disabilities Association of America. The learning disabilities association of America’s white paper on evaluation, identification, and eligibility criteria for students with specific learning disabilities. 2010. https://ldaamerica.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/LDA-White-Paper-on-IDEA-Evaluation-Criteria-for-SLD.pdf

  36. Leonard HC, Bernardi M, Hill EL, Henry LA. Executive functioning, motor difficulties, and developmental coordination disorder. Dev Neuropsychol. 2015;40(4):201–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2014.997933.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Lewis BA, O’Donnell B, Freebairn LA, Taylor HG. Spoken language and written expression—interplay of delays. Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 1998;7(3):77. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360.0703.77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Li H, Hamil C. Writing issues in college students with learning disabilities: a synthesis of the literature from 1900 to 2000. Learn Disabil Q. 2003;26:29–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Lindstrom JH. Determining appropriate accommodations for postsecondary students with reading and written expression disorders. Learn Disabil Res Pract. 2007;22(4):229–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2007.00251.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Mackie C, Dockrell J, Lindsay G. An evaluation of the written texts if children with SLI. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2013;47(6):1469–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Mayes SD, Calhoun SL. Frequency of reading, math, and writing disabilities in children with clinical disorders. Learn Individ Differ. 2006;16(2):145–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. McHale K, Cermak SA. Fine motor activities in elementary school: preliminary findings and provisional implications for children with fine motor problems. Am J Occup Ther. 1992;46(10):898–903.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Molitor SJ, Langberg JM, Evans SW. The written expression abilities of adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Res Dev Disabil. 2016;51–52:49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.01.005.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Mortimore T, Crozier WR. Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. Stud High Educ. 2006;31(2):235–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. National Center for Educational Statistics. NAEP 2011 writing report card for the nation and the states. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Norbury CF, Bishop DV. Narrative skills of children with communication impairments. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2003;38(3):287–313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Palmis S, Danna J, Velay J-L, Longcamp M. Motor control of handwriting in the developing brain: a review. Cogn Neuropsychol. 2017;34(3–4):187–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643294.2017.1367654.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Pennington BF. Diagnosing learning disorders: a neuropsychological framework. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Publications; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Pennington RC, Delano ME. Teaching written expression to students with intellectual disabilities. In: Browder DM, Spooner F, editors. More language arts, math, and science for students with severe disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes; 2014. p. 127–45.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Pitcher TM, Piek JP, Hay DA. Fine and gross motor ability in males with ADHD. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45(8):525–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Poletti M. WISC-IV intellectual profiles in Italian children with specific learning disorder and related impairments in reading, written expression, and mathematics. J Learn Disabil. 2016;49(3):320–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414555416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Price JR, Jackson SC. Procedures for obtaining and analyzing writing samples of school-age children and adolescents. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch. 2015;46(4):277. https://doi.org/10.1044/2015_LSHSS-14-0057.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Prunty M, Barnett AL. Understanding handwriting difficulties: a comparison of children with and without motor impairment. Cogn Neuropsychol. 2017;34(3–4):205–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643294.2017.1376630.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Prunty MM, Barnett AL, Wilmut K, Plumb MS. Handwriting speed in children with developmental coordination disorder: are they really slower? Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(9):2927–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.06.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Racine MB, Majnemer A, Shevell M, Snider L. Handwriting performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Child Neurol. 2008;23(4):399–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Re AM, Pedron M, Cornoldi C. Expressive writing difficulties in children described as exhibiting ADHD symptoms. J Learn Disabil. 2007;40(3):244–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Resta SP, Eliot J. Written expression in boys with attention deficit disorder. Percept Mot Skills. 1994;79(3):1131–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Rosenblum S, Epsztein L, Josman N. Handwriting performance of children with attention deficit hyperactive disorders: a pilot study. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr. 2008;28(3):219–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Salovey P, Haar MD. The efficacy of cognitive-behavior therapy and writing process training for alleviating writing anxiety. Cogn Ther Res. 1990;14(5):513–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Sanders-Reio J, Alexander PA, Reio TG, Newman I. Do students’ beliefs about writing relate to their writing self-efficacy, apprehension, and performance? Learn Instr. 2014;33:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Schweiker-Marra KE, Marra WT. Investigating the effects of prewriting activities on writing performance and anxiety of at-risk students. Read Psychol. 2000;21(2):99–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Reid R, Lienemann TO. Self-regulated strategy development for written expression with students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Except Child. 2006;73(1):53–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. MacArthur G, Fitzgerald MA, Charles A, Graham S, Fitzgerald J. Handbook of writing research. Second ed. New York: The Guilford Press; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Spreen O. Nonverbal learning disabilities: a critical review. Child Neuropsychol. 2011;17(5):418–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Stewart KA. Last words: the sparkling path to communication. MGH Institute of Health Professions Magazine. Spring; 2015. p. 30. www.mghihp.edu/sites/default/files/publications/magazine-spring-2015.pdf.

  66. Sumner E, Connelly V, Barnett AL. The influence of spelling ability on handwriting production: children with and without dyslexia. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2014;40(5):1441–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Troia GA. How might pragmatic language skills affect the written expression of students with language learning disabilities? Top Lang Disord. 2011;31(1):40–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Troia GA, Graham S, Harris KR. Teaching students with learning disabilities to mindfully plan when writing. Except Child. 1999;65(2):235–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299906500208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Van Hoorn JFV, Maathuis CGB, Hadders-Algra M. Neural correlates of paediatric dysgraphia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2013;55:65–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Visser J. Developmental coordination disorder: a review of research on subtypes and comorbidities. Hum Mov Sci. 2003;22(4–5):479–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.005.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Psychological Corporation. WIAT III: Wechsler Individual Achievement Test. San Antonio: Psychological Corp.; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Welsh MC, Pennington BF. Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: views from developmental psychology. Dev Neuropsychol. 1988;4:199–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Wilson BM, Proctor A. Written discourse of adolescents with closed head injury. Brain Inj. 2002;16:1011–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Wilson PH, Smits-Engelsman B, Caeyenberghs K, Steenbergen B, Sugden D, Clark J, et al. Cognitive and neuroimaging findings in developmental coordination disorder: new insights from a systematic review of recent research. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2017;59(11):1117–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Woodrow L. College English writing affect: self-efficacy and anxiety. System. 2011;39(4):510–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.10.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Adi- Japha E, Landau Y, Frenkel L, Teicher M, Grosstsur V, Shalev R. ADHD and dysgraphia: underlying mechanisms. Cortex. 2007;43(6):700–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70499-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Graham S. Helping students with LD progress as writers. Interv Sch Clin. 1992;27(3):134–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/105345129202700302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Hetzroni O, Shrieber B. Word processing as an assistive technology tool for enhancing academic outcomes of students with writing disabilities in the general classroom. J Learn Disabil. 2004;37(2):143–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Graham NL. Dysgraphia in primary progressive aphasia: characterisation of impairments and therapy options. Aphasiology. 2014;28(8-9):1092–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Graham S, Harris KR. Evidence-based writing practices: drawing recommendations from multiple sources. Br J Educ Psychol. 2009;2(6):95–111. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709909X421928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Re AM, Cornoldi C. ADHD expressive writing difficulties of ADHD children: when good declarative knowledge is not sufficient. Eur J Psychol Educ. 2010;25(3):315–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Singer BD. Written language development and disorders. Top Lang Disord. 16(1):83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Child Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    Ellen H. O’Donnell

  2. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Ellen H. O’Donnell & Mary K. Colvin

  3. Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    Mary K. Colvin

Authors
  1. Ellen H. O’Donnell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mary K. Colvin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ellen H. O’Donnell .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    H. Kent Wilson

  2. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Ellen B. Braaten

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

O’Donnell, E.H., Colvin, M.K. (2019). Disorders of Written Expression. In: Wilson, H., Braaten, E. (eds) The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Humana Press, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98643-2_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98643-2_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-98641-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-98643-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation