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Shipping of the Indian Ocean World

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Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

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Abstract

This broad survey of the shipping of the Indian Ocean World attempts to cover all the traditions of shipbuilding, which produced vessels suitable for interregional voyaging in the last two millennia. European shipping, which intruded into the Indian Ocean at the end of the fifteenth century, is only mentioned briefly although some of the finest ships of this tradition were built at Bombay and Calcutta. The survey is divided into two parts and five regions that represent the geographical extent of five clearly distinguishable traditions of shipbuilding. While the style and outward appearance of ships is relatively easily diffused from one culture to another, the basic method of constructing a planked boat or ship is more deeply embedded and more impervious to external influence (Seán McGrail (1985) “Towards a Classification of Water Transport”, World Archaeology 16.3, 291). This survey relies greatly on the considerable corpus of work on the subject developed by Pierre-Yves Manguin over more than three decades. This chapter cannot attempt to cover in detail everything that Manguin has presented, but attempts a broad outline plus some new data and reinterpretation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cf. Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Late Medieval Asian Shipbuilding in the Indian Ocean”, Moyen Orient & Ocean Indien 2.2, 1–30.

  2. 2.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”, 3.

  3. 3.

    Translation in William Facey and Michael Rice (1991) Oman: A Seafaring Nation (Sultanate of Oman: Ministry of National Heritage and Culture), 107–108.

  4. 4.

    Serge Cleuziou and Maurizio Tosi (1994) “Black Boats of Magan: Some Thoughts on the Bronze Age Water Transport in Oman and Beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra’s al-Junayz”, in Asko Parpola and Petteri Koskikallio (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1993, vol. 2 (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia), 745–761.

  5. 5.

    Dieter Schlingloff (1988) Studies in Ajanta Painting: Identifications and Interpretations (Delhi: Ajanta Publishing), 196.

  6. 6.

    Strabo [64/63 BCE–24 CE] (1917) The Geography of Strabo, vol. 1, Book 2 (Loeb Classical Library Edition), 378.

  7. 7.

    Marcellinus Ammianus [325/330–c. 395] (1978) Ammiani Marcellini rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt, ed. Wolfgang Seyfarth, Liselotte Jacob-Karau, and Ilse Ulmann, vol. 1, Book 23, Chapter 6, Section 11 (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner).

  8. 8.

    Geoff Wade (2012) “Southeast Asian Islam and Southern China in the Fourteenth Century”, in Geoff Wade and Tana Li (ed.), Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past (Singapore: ISEAS), 128.

  9. 9.

    André Wink (1990) Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World 1: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam Seventh–Eleventh Centuries (Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill), 84.

  10. 10.

    Michael Pearson (2010) “Islamic Trade, Shipping, Port-States and Merchant Communities in the Indian Ocean, Seventh–Sixteenth Centuries”, in Michael A. Cook (ed.), New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 322.

  11. 11.

    Dionisius A. Agius (2008) Classic Ships of Islam: From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean (Leiden: E. J. Brill), 182.

  12. 12.

    Nick Burningham (2007), “Baghla, Ghanja and Kotia: Distinguishing the Baghla from the Suri Ghanja and the Indian Kotia”, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36.1, 91–111.

  13. 13.

    Michael Flecker (2000) “A Ninth-Century Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesian Waters”, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Explorations 29.2, 199–217.

  14. 14.

    Quoted in Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”, 4.

  15. 15.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”, 10.

  16. 16.

    Cf. for example Jeremy N. Green (2001) “The Archaeological Contribution to the Knowledge of the Extra-European Shipbuilding at the Time of the Medieval and Modern Iberian- Atlantic Tradition”, in Francisco J. S. Alves (ed.), Proceedings International Symposium on Archaeology of Medieval and Modern Ships of Iberian-Atlantic Tradition: Hull Remains, Manuscripts and Ethnographic Sources: A Comparative Approach: Centro Nacional de Arqueologia Náuticae Subaquática/academia de Marinha Lisboa, 7–9 September 1998 [Trabalhos de Arqeologia, 18] (Lisboa: Instituto Portugês de Arqueologia), 66.

  17. 17.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”, 9.

  18. 18.

    William B. Greenlee (1938) The Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral to Brazil and India (London: Hakluyt Society), 65.

  19. 19.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”, 9–10.

  20. 20.

    A photograph of this is reproduced in Jean Deloche (1994) “Iconographic Evidence on the Development of the Boat and Ship Structures in India (2nd cent. B.C.–15th cent. A.D.)”, in Himanshu P. Ray and Jean-François Salles (eds.), Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean: Proceedings of the International Seminar Techno-Archaeological Perspectes of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean Fourth Cent. B.C.–Fifteenth cent. A.D. New Delhi, New Delhi, 28 Feb–4 March (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors), 221.

  21. 21.

    Jean Deloche (1987) “Etudes sur la Circulation en Inde, vol. 7: Konkan Warships of the Eleventh–Fifteenth Centuries as Represented on Memorial Stones”, Bulletin de l’École Francais d′Extrême-Orient 76, 165–184..

  22. 22.

    James Hornell (1930) “The Tongue and Groove Seam of Gujarati Boat Builders”, Mariners’ Mirror 16, 310.

  23. 23.

    Quoted in Ruttonjee A. Wadia (1957) Bombay Dockyard (Bombay: no publisher), 189.

  24. 24.

    John H. Grose (1772) A Voyage to the East Indies: Containing Authentic Accounts of the Mogul Government in General, the Viceroyalties of the Decan and Bengal, with Their Feveral Fubordinate Dependances of Angria, the Morattoes, and Tanjoreans of the Mahometan, Gentoo, and Parsee Religions of Their Customs and Antiquities, with General Reflections on the Trade of India of the European Settlements, Particularly Those Belonging to the English, Their Respective Factories, Governments, Trade, Fortifications and Public Buildings; the History of the War with the French from 1754 to the Conclusion of the General Peace in 1763, 2 vols (London: S. Hooper), 142–143.

  25. 25.

    David Nicolle (1989) “Shipping in Islamic Art: Seventh through Sixteenth Century AD”, American Neptune 49.3, 168–197; Dieter Schlingloff (1988) Studies in Ajanta Painting; Jean Deloche (1987) “Études sur la circulation en Inde”; Jean Deloche (1994) “Iconographic Evidence”.

  26. 26.

    Jean Deloche (1994) “Iconographic Evidence”, 208.

  27. 27.

    Cf., for example, James Hornell (1918–1923) “The Origins and Ethnographic Significance of Indian Boat Designs”, Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 7.3, 236–238; Basil Greenhill (1976) The Archaeology of the Boat (London: A & C Black Publishers), 147.

  28. 28.

    This term was coined in Nick Burningham (2007) “Baghla, Ghanja and Kotia”, 100.

  29. 29.

    David Nicolle (1989) “Shipping in Islamic Art”, Figs. 6 and 7.

  30. 30.

    David Nicolle (1989) “Shipping in Islamic Art”, Fig. 8.

  31. 31.

    Jean Deloche (1987) “Études sur la circulation en Inde”, Figs. 7a and 8.

  32. 32.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1987) The Trading Ships of the South China Sea, Joint Conference of the Australian Association for Maritime History and Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (Nedlands: University Extension, University of Western Australia), 7.

  33. 33.

    Cf. George F. Hourani (1951) Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 100–101.

  34. 34.

    Jean Deloche (1994), “Iconographic Evidence”, 221.

  35. 35.

    Gaspar Correa [c. 1492–1563] (1869) Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama and his Viceroyalty: From the Lendas da Índia of Gaspar Correa, trans. Henry E. J. Stanley (London: The Hakluyt Society), 239–241.

  36. 36.

    Michael Flecker (2000) “A Ninth-Century Arab or Indian Shipwreck”.

  37. 37.

    The following data are all from Michael Flecker (2000) “Shipwreck”.

  38. 38.

    Cf. Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”, 4.

  39. 39.

    Gaspar Correa (1858–1866) Lendas da India, 8 vols (Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias), 1/1, 122 (according to Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”).

  40. 40.

    Tim Severin (1982) The Sindbad Voyage (London: Hutchinson Publishing Group).

  41. 41.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1985) “Asian Shipbuilding”, 4.

  42. 42.

    Jeronimo Lobo (1984) The Itinerário of Jeronimo Lobo, translated from the Portuguese text by Lockhart, Donald M., established and edited by Costa, M. Gonçalves da, introduction and notes by Charles F. Beckingham (London: The Hakluyt Society), 107; emphasis added.

  43. 43.

    Rajendran, Chittenipattu P., et al. (2011) “Geoarchaeological Evidence of a Chola-Period Tsunami from an Ancient Port at Kaveripattinam on the Southeastern Coast of India”, Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 26.6, 867–887.

  44. 44.

    Anonym, Visakhapatnam, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visakhapatnam (accessed on 15 September 2013).

  45. 45.

    M. R. Raghava Varier (1988) “Marine Technology in Ancient Tamilakam”, in G. Victor Rajamanickam and Y. Subbarayalu (eds.), History of Traditional Navigation (Thanjavur: Tamil University), 51–62.

  46. 46.

    Hermann Kulke, K. Kesavapany and Vijay Sakhuja, eds. (2009) Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies).

  47. 47.

    Duarte Barbosa (1866) A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the beginning of the Sixteenth Century, trans. Henry E. J. Stanley (London: The Hakluyt Society), 179. Barbosa sometimes used “Chinese” to mean “oriental” including Southeast Asia: For example he wrote “There is much trade in cloves and mace and other Chinese goods…”, though he knew precisely where cloves and mace came from.

  48. 48.

    Duarte Barbosa (1866) A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar, 181.

  49. 49.

    Victoria Tomalin, et al. (2004) “The Thaikkal-Kadakkarappally Boat: An Archaeological Example of Medieval Shipbuilding in the Western Indian Ocean”, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Explorations 33.2, 353–363.

  50. 50.

    Eric Kentley (2003) “The Madel Paruwa of Sri Lanka: A Sewn Boat with Chine Strakes”, in Seán McGrail (ed.), Boats of South Asia (London: RoutledgeCurzon), 167–183.

  51. 51.

    John Edye [1789–1873] (1834) “Description of the Various Classes of Vessels Constructed and Employed by the Natives of the Coasts of Coromandel, Malabar, and the Island of Ceylon, for their Coasting Navigation”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1.1, 1–14, plate 13.

  52. 52.

    James Hornell (1943) “The Fishing and Coastal Craft of Ceylon”, Mariner’s Mirror 29.1, 49.

  53. 53.

    James Hornell (1918–1923) “The Origins and Ethnographic Significance of Indian Boat Designs”, 178.

  54. 54.

    James Hornell (1943) “The Fishing and Coastal Craft of Ceylon”, 49.

  55. 55.

    James Hornell (1943) “The Fishing and Coastal Craft of Ceylon”, 49.

  56. 56.

    Henry C. Folkard (1870) The Sailing Boat: A Treatise on the English and Foreign Boats, 4th ed. (London: Longmans, Green & Co.), 316.

  57. 57.

    James Hornell (1920) “The Origins”, 157.

  58. 58.

    Clifford W. Hawkins (1965) “The Tuticorin Thoni”, Mariner’s Mirror 51.2, 147–153.

  59. 59.

    Robert M. Adams (1985) Construction and Qualitative Analysis of a Sewn Boat of the Western Indian Ocean (College Station: Texas A & M University), 12.

  60. 60.

    Cf. Thomas Vernet (2015) “East African Travellers and Traders in the Indian Ocean”, in Michael Pearson (ed.), Trade, Circulation and Flow in the Indian Ocean World (London: Palgrave Macmillan), 167–202.

  61. 61.

    Robert M. Adams (1985) Construction and Qualitative Analysis, 32.

  62. 62.

    Neville H. Chittick (1980) “Sewn Boats in the Western Indian Ocean and a Survival in Somalia”, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 9, 297–309.

  63. 63.

    Adriaan H. J. Prins (1965) Sailing from Lamu: A Study of Maritime Culture in Islamic East Africa, Assen, Holland (Assem: Van Gorcum), 188.

  64. 64.

    I Wayan Ardika and Peter Bellwood (1991) “Sembiran: The Beginnings of Indian Contact with Bali”, Antiquity 65, 221–232.

  65. 65.

    Jan Wisseman Christie (1995) “State Formation in Early Maritime Southeast Asia: A Consideration of the Theories and the Data”, Bijdragen tot de taal- land- en volkenkunde 151.2, 242.

  66. 66.

    Jan Wisseman Christie (1995) “State Formation”, 250.

  67. 67.

    Roger Blench (1996) “The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-distance Contacts between Oceania and East Africa”, in Julian E. Reade (ed.), The Indian Ocean in Antiquity (London: Kegan Paul), 417–438.

  68. 68.

    Alexander K. Adelaar (2006) “The Indonesian Migration to Madagascar: Making Sense of the Multidisciplinary Evidence”, in Truman Simanjuntak, Ingrid H. E. Pojoh, and Mohammad Hisyam (eds.), Austronesian Diaspora and the Ethnogenesis of People in Indonesian Archipelago (Jakarta: LIPI Press).

  69. 69.

    Otto Christian Dahl (1951) Malgache et Maanyan. Une comparaison linguistique. Avhandlinger utgitt av Instituttet 3 (Oslo: Egede Instituttet).

  70. 70.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1980) “The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 11.2, 175.

  71. 71.

    Paul Pelliot [1878–1945] (1925) Quelques textes chinois concernant l’Indochine hindouisée, in Études asiatiques, publiées à l’occasion du 25e anniversaire de l’ École française d’Extrême-Orient, vol. 2 (Hanoi: Impr. d’Extrême-Orient), 243–263; Joseph Needham (1971) Science and Civilization in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 450, 453.

  72. 72.

    Geoff Wade (2013) “Maritime Routes Between Indochina and Nusantara to the Eighteenth Century”, Archipel 85, 86.

  73. 73.

    Personal communication with Jun Kimura, April 2013.

  74. 74.

    Gaspar Correa (1858) Lendas da India, vol. 1 (Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias), 216–218.

  75. 75.

    Personal communication with Nuno Rubim, 2001.

  76. 76.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1980) “Southeast Asian Ship”, 267–268.

  77. 77.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993) “The Vanishing Jong”, in Anthony Reid (ed.), Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief (New York: Cornell University Press), 197–213.

  78. 78.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (2012) “Lancaran, Ghurab and Ghali: Mediterranean Impact on War Vessels in Early Modern Southeast Asia”, in Geoff Wade and Li Tana (eds.), Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past (Singapore: ISEAS), 166, quoting various Portuguese texts.

  79. 79.

    Charles C. Macknight (1976) The Voyage to Marege (Carlton: Melbourne University Press).

  80. 80.

    Ivor H. N. Evans [1886–1957] (1927) “Notes on the Remains of an Old Boat from Pontian, Pahang”, Journal Federated Malay States Museum 12, 93–96; Carl A. Gibson-Hill (1952) “Further Notes on the Old Boat Found at Pontian, Southern Pahang”, Journal (Malay Branch) of the Royal Asiatic Society 25.:1, 111–133.

  81. 81.

    G. Adrian Horridge (1978) The Design of Planked Boats of the Moluccas [Maritime Monographs and Reports, 38] (London: National Maritime Museum).

  82. 82.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1996) “Southeast Asian Shipping in the Indian Ocean during the First Millennium AD”, in Himanshu P. Ray and Jean-François Salles (eds.), Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean: Proceedings of the International Seminar on Techno-archaeological Perspectives of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean, Fourth century B.C.–Fifteenth century A.D., New Delhi, February 28 Markch 4 (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors), 185.

  83. 83.

    Cf., for example, Nick Burningham and Jeffrey Mellefont (1997) “The Exceptional Janggolan”, The Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 21:1–2, 42.

  84. 84.

    Michael Flecker (2002) The Archaeological Excavation of the Tenth Century Intan Shipwreck [BAR International Series, 1047] (Oxford: Archaeopress), 125.

  85. 85.

    Personal communication with Horst Liebner, 2013.

  86. 86.

    This and data below are from Michael Flecker (2003) “The Thirteenth-Century Java Sea Wreck: A Chinese Cargo in an Indonesian Ship”, The Mariner’s Mirror 89.4, 388–404.

  87. 87.

    Michael Flecker (2003) “Thirteenth-Century Java Sea Wreck”, 392.

  88. 88.

    Michael Flecker (2003) “Thirteenth-Century Java Sea Wreck”, 393, citing Pierre-Yves Manguin (1984) “Relationships and Cross-Influence Between Southeast Asian and Chinese Shipbuilding Traditions”, in SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts (ed.), Final Report Consultative Workshop on Research on Maritime Shipping and Trade Networks in Southeast Asia (Bangkok: SPAFA Coordinating Unit), 201.

  89. 89.

    Michael Flecker (2007) “The South-China-Sea Tradition: The Hybrid Hulls of South-East Asia”, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36.1, 75–90.

  90. 90.

    Michael Flecker (2007) “The South-China-Sea Tradition”, 81.

  91. 91.

    John S. Guy (1990) Oriental Trade Ceramics in Southeast Asia, Ninth to Sixteenth Century (Singapore: Oxford University Press), 59.

  92. 92.

    Michael Flecker (2007) “The South-China-Sea Tradition”, 89.

  93. 93.

    Theodoor van Erp [1874–1958] (1923) “Vorstelling van vaartuigen op de reliefs van den Boroboedoer”, Nederlandsch-Indië Oud en Nieuw 8, 239.

  94. 94.

    Joseph Needham (1971) Civil Engineering and Nautics, 457–458, Fig. 937.

  95. 95.

    Cf., for example, Radhakumud Mookerji [1884–1964] (1912) Indian Shipping: A History of Sea-Borne and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the Earliest Times (Bombay et al.: Longmans, Green and Co.), frontispiece and plates 1–6 facing 46 and 48.

  96. 96.

    Theodoor van Erp (1923) “reliefs van den Boroboedoer”, 227–257.

  97. 97.

    Tom Vosmer (1993) “The Yatra Dhoni of Sri Lanka”, Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 17.2, 37–42.

  98. 98.

    Henry C. Folkard [1827–1914] (1870) The Sailing Boat (London: Longmans, Green & Co.), 315–316.

  99. 99.

    George E. P. Collins (1936) East Monsoon (New York: Scribner).

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    François-Edmond Pâris [1806–1893] (1841) Essai sur la construction naval des peuples extra-Européens (Paris: Artus Bertrand); Eric Rieth (1992) Le Voyage de la favorite: Collection de bâteaux dessinés d’après nature, 1830, 1831, 1832, illustrated by François-Edmond Pâris [1806–1893] (Arcueil: Editions ANTHÈSE).

  101. 101.

    Joseph Needham (1971) Civil Engineering and Nautics, Fig. 975.

  102. 102.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993) “The Vanishing Jong”, 197–213.

  103. 103.

    Kimura Jun, ed. (2010) Shipwreck ASIA. Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime Archaeology (Adelaide: Maritime Archaeology Program, Flinders University), 1–25.

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  105. 105.

    Reproduced in Pierre-Yves Manguin (1980) “The Southeast Asian Ship”, 266–276, Fig. 2.

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    Isaac Commelin [1598–1676] (1646) Begin ende Voortgang van de Vereenigde Neederlandtsche Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Compagnie (Amsterdam: Johannes Janssonius).

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    Yōko Nagazumi 永積洋子 (2001) Shuinsen 朱印船 (Tōkyō: Yoshikawa kobunkan), 60–62.

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    Xavier Romero-Frias (1999) The Maldive Islanders: A Study of the Popular Culture of an Ancient Ocean Kingdom (Barcelona: Nova Ethnographia Indica); Clarence Maloney (1995) “Where Did the Maldives People Come From?”, International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter 5, http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/iiasn5/insouasi/maloney.html (accessed 24 July 2013).

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    Chandra R. de Silva (2009) Portuguese Encounters with Sri Lanka and the Maldives (Norfolk: Old Dominion University).

  110. 110.

    Pierre-Yves Manguin (2000) “Les techniques de construction navale aux Maldives originaires d’Asia du Sud-Est”, Techniques & Culture 36, 21–47.

  111. 111.

    Karen Millar (1993) “Preliminary Report on Observations Made into Techniques and Traditions of Maldivian Shipbuilding”, Bulletin of the Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology 17.1, 9–16.

  112. 112.

    Personal communication with Maizan Hassan Maniku, 1997.

  113. 113.

    Personal communication with Horst Liebner, 2013.

  114. 114.

    Stanley E. Bradfield (1964) Road to the Sea (London: Temple Press Books), Fig. 17.

  115. 115.

    Carl A. Gibson-Hill (1952) “Further Notes on the Old Boat Found at Pontian”, 111–133; G. Adrian Horridge (1978) The Design of Planked Boats of the Moluccas, for example.

  116. 116.

    Nick Burningham and Kurt Stenross (1994) “Mayang: The Traditional Fishing Vessel of Java”, The Beagle: Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory 11, 73–132.

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    Tomé Pires [1465?–1524/1540] (1944) Suma Oriental, trans. and ed. Armando Cortesão, vol. 2 (London: Hakluyt Society), 169.

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    Alexander Hamilton [Seventeenth–Eighteenth Century] (1744) A New Account of the East Indies (London: Hitch & Millar), 350.

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    Ma Huan 馬歡 [c. 1380–1460] (1970) Ying-yai Sheng-lan 瀛涯勝覽—‘The Overall Survey of the Ocean Shores’, ed. Feng Ch’eng-chün 馮承鈞 [1885–1946], trans. John V. G. Mills [Hakluyt Society Extra Series, 42] (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, reprint of 1433).

  120. 120.

    Gaspar Correa (1858) Lendas da India (English Translation), vol. 2, 103.

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  1. Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle, WA, Australia

    Nick Burningham

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  1. University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria

    Angela Schottenhammer

  2. Research Director of the Indian Ocean World Centre (IOWC), McGill University, Montreal, Canada

    Angela Schottenhammer

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Burningham, N. (2019). Shipping of the Indian Ocean World. In: Schottenhammer, A. (eds) Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97801-7_6

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