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Equal Opportunities for West German Foreign Residents (1968–1977)

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Teaching Migrant Children in West Germany and Europe, 1949–1992

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in the History of Childhood ((PSHC))

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Abstract

During the late 1960s, education reform swept the European continent. Responding in part to the 1968 revolutions, the United Nations and the Council of Europe both encouraged integration and emphasized host countries’ responsibility for ensuring human rights for all residents as opposed to citizens. Among other measures, they pushed education opportunity through secondary school in order to enable children to access the workforce. The Länder Ministries responded by encouraging its non-German population to integrate. Yet, looking at the growing Turkish population, most Länder governments assumed these children too culturally distant to fully integrate, turning Turkishness into the antithesis of Germanness precisely as the Turkish government began its Turkification campaigns.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Hartwig Suhrbier, “Bildungsplan für Ausländer: DGB fordert schulische Integration und Chancengleichheit,” Frankfurter Rundschau, June 2, 1973; Ruth Lingenberg, “Bei Ausländerkindern ‘tickt eine Zeitbombe’: Von der Jugendarbeitslosigkeit sind sie besonders bedroht,” Kölnische Rundschau, April 15, 1976.

  2. 2.

    Maria Stehle, Ghetto Voices in Contemporary German Culture: Textscapes, Filmscapes, Soundscapes (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2012), 12; Nermin Abadan-Unat, Turks in Europe: From Guest Worker to Transnational Citizen (New York: Berghahn Books, 2011), 110–11.

  3. 3.

    Joti Bhatnagar and Schole Raoufi, eds., “The Children of Guest-Workers in the Federal Republic of Germany: Maladjustment and Its Effects on Academic Performance,” in Educating Immigrants (London: Croom Helm, 1981), 113–36; Riva Kastoryano, Negotiating Identities: States and Immigrants in France and Germany (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 30, 71–72.

  4. 4.

    For more on the process of finding housing, see Jennifer Miller’s Turkish Guest Workers in Germany: Hidden Lives and Contested Borders, 1960s to 1980s (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2018), 78–106. In reality, “Germans” were just as statistically likely as West German “foreign fellow residents” (ausländische Mitbürger) to commit crimes. The latter groups, however, did face housing and employment discrimination (Stehle, Ghetto Voices in Contemporary German Culture, 12; Abadan-Unat, Turks in Europe, 110–11; Rob T. Guerette, Migration, Culture Conflict, Crime and Terrorism (New York: Routledge, 2016), 94–97).

  5. 5.

    Ole Borre, The Scope of Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 165–66; Carl-Ulrik Schierup, Leo Hansen, and Stephen Castles, Migration, Citizenship, and the European Welfare State: A European Dilemma (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 137–40.

  6. 6.

    Hartwig Suhrbier, “Bildungsplan für Ausländer”; Marieke Boom, “Modellversuch für Lehrer: Deutsch als Fremdsprache: Ein Schritt zur Chancengleichheit für Ausländer-Kinder,” Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, April 20, 1979.

  7. 7.

    Walter Fröhder, “Vom Gastarbeiter zum Mitbürger auf Zeit: Die Gewerkschaften wollen die Rechte der Ausländer erweitert sehen,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, August 31, 1972.

  8. 8.

    For more on the concept of intersectionality, see Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, “Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law,” Harvard Law Review 101, no. 7 (1988): 1331–1387; Sumi Cho, Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, and Leslie McCall, “Toward a Field of Intersectionality Studies: Theory, Applications, and Praxis,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 38, no. 4 (2013): 785–810.

  9. 9.

    “At 18, schoolchildren and students in the USA 71%, FRG 15%” (Associated Press, Studenten während einer Demonstration in Frankfurt am Main im Jahr 1965, 1965, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, http://www.bpb.de/geschichte/deutsche-geschichte/geschichte-der-raf/49201/apo-und-studentenproteste).

  10. 10.

    The implication here was twofold: First that low numbers of students were transitioning into either middle- or upper-secondary schools and second that children were dropping out before graduation. For more information, see Carl-Ludwig Furck, “Das Schulsystem: Primarbereich—Hauptschule—Realschule—Gymnasium—Gesamtschule,” in Handbuch der deutschen Bildungsgeschichte: 1945 bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Christa Berg, Christoph Führ, and Carl-Ludwig Furck, vol. 1, 6 (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1998), 282–347.

  11. 11.

    Immanuel Wallerstein, “1968, Revolution in the World-System,” Theory and Society 18, no. 4 (July 1, 1989): 431–49; Ingo Cornils, Writing the Revolution: The Construction of “1968” in Germany (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2016), 218.

  12. 12.

    Articles 1, 2, and 3 specify the federal government was supposed to prevent discrimination in terms of sex, ancestry, race, language, homeland and origin, faith, or religious and political views. For a discussion of the Basic Law and immigration, see Christian Joppke, “Not a Country of Immigration: Germany,” in Immigration and the Nation-State: The United States, Germany, and Great Britain (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 67–70.

  13. 13.

    Vladimir Tismaneanu, Promises of 1968: Crisis, Illusion, and Utopia (New York: Central European University Press, 2011), 206.

  14. 14.

    Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959), 241–79; Klaus Larres and Panikos Panayi, The Federal Republic of Germany Since 1949: Politics, Society and Economy Before and After Unification (New York: Routledge, 2014), 49; Terri E. Givens and Rhonda Evans Case, Legislating Equality: The Politics of Antidiscrimination Policy in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 42–43.

  15. 15.

    Founded in 1960, the OECD’s mission is now to “promote policies that will improve the economic and social well-being” (OECD, “About the OECD,” accessed April 29, 2018, http://www.oecd.org/about/; Richard Woodward, The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), eBook (New York: Routledge, 2009); Mary Ellen Dunn, Reclaiming Opportunities for Effective Teaching: An Institutional Ethnographic Study of Community College Course Outlines (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016), 43).

  16. 16.

    Committee of Senior Officials and Jean Thomas, “Educational Problems Common to European Countries,” Collective Report ESC/HF (61) 3, Third Conference of Ministers of Education (Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe, October 16, 1961), Box 2428, Council of Europe. See also European Commission and Luce Pépin, The History of European Cooperation in Education and Training: Europe in the Making—an Example (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publication of the European Communities, 2006), 43–58. The International Bureau of Education and UNESCO made the same argument (International Bureau of Education, “Educational Trends in 1970: An International Survey” (Geneva: International Bureau of Education, 1970), 8).

  17. 17.

    “DE Council of Europe CS/1/LB/Ck/1355,” Draft Agenda (April 3, 1969), B 91, Bd. 302, PA AA. The conference took place between 20 and 22 May 1969 in Versailles. See also “Educational Opportunity for All: Paper Prepared by the O.E.C.D. on Development of Secondary Education Policy Implications,” Sixth Conference of Ministers of Education (Versailles: OECD, May 1969), 4, B 91, Bd. 301, PA AA.

  18. 18.

    Anthony J. La Vopa, Grace, Talent, and Merit: Poor Students, Clerical Careers, and Professional Ideology in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Andreas Hadjar and Rolf Becker, “Education Systems and Meritocracy: Social Origin, Educational and Status Attainment,” in Education Systems and Inequalities: International Comparisons, ed. Andreas Hadjar and Christiane Gross (Chicago: Policy Press, 2016), 231–58.

  19. 19.

    Volksschule was divided in 1964 into primary and lower-secondary school levels, but the transition was often meaningless as the newly named institutions often remained in the same buildings and structures (Furck, “Das Schulsystem: Primarbereich—Hauptschule—Realschule—Gymnasium—Gesamtschule,” 294).

  20. 20.

    Furck, “Das Schulsystem: Primarbereich—Hauptschule—Realschule—Gymnasium—Gesamtschule”; Brian M. Puaca, Learning Democracy: Education Reform in West Germany, 1945–1965 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009), 41; Marcel Helbig and Rita Nikolai, Die Unvergleichbaren: Der Wandel der Schulsysteme in den deutschen Bundesländern seit 1949 (Bad Heilbrunn: Verlag Julius Klinkhardt, 2015), 30–38.

  21. 21.

    “Educational Opportunity for All: Paper Prepared by the O.E.C.D. on Development of Secondary Education Policy Implications,” 2–3.

  22. 22.

    European Commission and Luce Pépin, History of European Cooperation, 61–64; Gisella Gori, Towards an EU Right to Education (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001), 19. The six included France, West Germany, Italy as well as Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

  23. 23.

    With a clear connection between the labor market and job training, the European Economic Community could lay “down [ten] general principles for implementing a common vocational training policy.” Among other points, the Decision (63/266/EEC) called for a common training policy to contribute to the continued “harmonious development” of the national economies and the common market. See Council of the European Communities, “63/266/EEC: Council Decision of 2 April 1963 Laying down General Principles for Implementing a Common Vocational Training Policy,” Official Journal P 63 (April 20, 1963): 1338–41; European Commission and Luce Pépin, History of European Cooperation, 22–23, 56–58. For a discussion of the decision, see Euan Reid and Hans H. Reich, eds., Breaking the Boundaries: Migrant Workers’ Children in the EC (Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1991), 182.

  24. 24.

    The Council of European Communities, “Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 of the Council of 15 October 1968 on Freedom of Movement for Workers Within the Community,” Official Journal L 257, October 19, 1968, 0002–0012; European Commission and Luce Pépin, History of European Cooperation, 63–64, 72–73; Klaus Dieter Beiter, The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law: Including a Systematic Analysis of Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006), 189–90. The Conference of Ministers of Education of member states of the European Community would reaffirm that cooperation in the education sector was indeed a task for the European Community (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft, “Conference of Ministers of Education of European Member States,” Reply to EP/4114/4 (Bonn, June 15, 1973), 2, B 91, Bd. 431, PA AA).

  25. 25.

    For a discussion of 1960s and 1970s labor immigration, see Stephen Castles, Heather Booth, and Tina Wallace, Here for Good: Western Europe’s New Ethnic Minorities (London: Pluto Press, 1984). For some information on the relationship between Turkey and the European Community during this period, see Nicholas Rogers, A Practitioner’s Guide to the EC-Turkey Association Agreement (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1999).

  26. 26.

    The Federal Republic agreed with the Council. For a discussion of developing European cooperation, see Samantha Currie, Migration, Work and Citizenship in the Enlarged European Union (New York: Routledge, 2016), 11–32.

  27. 27.

    Donato Casagrande v Landeshauptstadt München, 1974 European Court Reports (European Court of Justice 1974).

  28. 28.

    Under Bavarian law poorer children in secondary school between the fifth and tenth classes could apply for 70 DM a month as a “benefit for encouraging education” (Article 2 of the Bavarian Law on Educational Grants (Bayerisches Ausbildungsförderungsgesetz)).

  29. 29.

    Casagrande Case, 1974 European Court Reports. Stateless persons were defined under BGBl. From 25 April 1951 and as amended on 9 September 1965 BGBl. I, p. 1273.

  30. 30.

    Michèle Finck, Subnational Authorities in EU Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 136–39.

  31. 31.

    Bayerisches Verwaltungsgericht. The European Court of Justice is designed to ensure that European law is applied equally in each of the member states. The Court has one judge from each member state. For more on the European Court of Justice, see for example Maurice Adams et al., Judging Europe’s Judges: The Legitimacy of the Case Law of the European Court of Justice (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2013); Dennis F. Thompson, Restoring Responsibility: Ethics in Government, Business, and Healthcare (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 318–21; Beiter, The Protection of the Right to Education.

  32. 32.

    For a discussion of the idea see Gori, Towards an EU Right to Education, 342–50; Kirsten Shoraka, Human Rights and Minority Rights in the European Union (New York: Routledge, 2010).

  33. 33.

    Furthermore, 40 percent of the schoolchildren in middle- and upper-secondary schools only reached the mid-level certificate (Mittlere Reife, equivalent to a high school diploma but not sufficient for entering university) in 10 years of schooling (Ministerium für Arbeit, Gesundheit und Soziales des Landes NRW, “Sitzung des Arbeitskreises III ‘Schulische und weiterführende Ausbildung’ des Landesbeirats für ausländische Arbeitnehmer am 15. 1. 1973,” Ergebnisniederschrift (Düsseldorf, 1973), NW 670-142, Landesarchiv NRW). Franz Domhof, head of the Ministry of Education’s department for “the education of migrant workers’ children’s instruction in their mother-tongue,” reminded the inter-ministerial group of that problem (Franz Domhof, “Die Entwicklung des Unterrichts für ausländische Schüler in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland” (Dissertation, Gesamthochsch., 1982)).

  34. 34.

    Anthony M. Messina, The Logics and Politics of Post-WWII Migration to Western Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 37. To address the issue, the French government doubled down on its citizenship laws emphasizing jus soli in order to push integration among its migrant worker populations (predominantly from the former colonies).

  35. 35.

    After all, as Swiss author Max Frisch famously said, “We asked for workers and people came” (See Yannick Lemel and Heinz Herbert Noll, eds., Changing Structures of Inequality: A Comparative Perspective (Montréal: McGill-Queen’s Press, 2003), 288; Doris Meissner, “Managing Migrations,” Foreign Policy, no. 86 (April 1, 1992): 69).

  36. 36.

    Statistisches Bundesamt, Germany, Statistisches Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1976), 65, 94–96.

  37. 37.

    For information on the right to reside, see Jeffrey Jurgens, “The Legacies of Labor Recruitment: The Guest Worker and Green Card Programs in the Federal Republic of Germany,” Policy and Society 29, no. 4 (November 1, 2010): 348–49.

  38. 38.

    Maria Stehle, “Narrating the Ghetto, Narrating Europe: From Berlin, Kreuzberg to the Banlieues of Paris,” Westminster Papers in Communication & Culture 3, no. 3 (October 2006): 48–70.

  39. 39.

    In connection with a 1974 Social Action Plan (“Council Resolution of 21 January 1974 Concerning a Social Action Programme,” Official Journal of the European Communities, no. C 13 (February 12, 1974): 1–4; Council of the European Communities, “Draft ‘A’ of the Council Resolution on an Action Programme for Migrant Workers and Their Families: Report from the Working Party on Social Questions to the Permanent Representatives Committee,” Draft (Brussels: European Community, December 5, 1975), BAC 14/1989 44, Commission of the European Union; Karen M. Anderson, Social Policy in the European Union (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 146–47).

  40. 40.

    Franz Domhof, “Gedanken zur Verbesserung des Unterrichts für Kinder ausländischer Arbeitnehmer in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland,” 1975, 1, BAC 144/1987 53, Commission of the European Union.

  41. 41.

    See also Ruth Herrmann, “Die soziale Zeitbombe tickt: Immer mehr junge Ausländer werden in die Kriminalität gedrängt,” Die Zeit, November 3, 1978; “Die soziale Zeitbombe tickt nicht überall: Bremens Schule an der Schmidtstraße als Modell für die Integration,” Stuttgarter Zeiting, September 21, 1979.

  42. 42.

    Sule Özüekren and Ebru Ergoz-Karahan, “Housing Experiences of Turkish (Im)Migrants in Berlin and Istanbul: Internal Differentiation and Segregation,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 36, no. 2 (February 1, 2010): 362–63.

  43. 43.

    Andreas Wolf, “So sah Kreuzberg in den 70er Jahren aus,” Berliner Zeitung, April 18, 2017, https://www.bz-berlin.de/berlin/friedrichshain-kreuzberg/so-sah-kreuzberg-in-den-70er-jahren-aus; “Kreuzberg 1970s Stock Photos and Pictures,” Getty Images, accessed May 9, 2018, https://www.gettyimages.com

  44. 44.

    The Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg Museum (on Adalbertstraße) takes visitors inside some of those children’s apartments, highlighting the fact that these buildings were home to families (“FHXB Museum: Home,” accessed May 8, 2018, https://www.fhxb-museum.de; H. Julia Eksner, Ghetto Ideologies, Youth Identities and Stylized Turkish German: Turkish Youths in Berlin-Kreuzberg (Münster: LIT Verlag, 2007)).

  45. 45.

    Wolf, “So sah Kreuzberg in den 70er Jahren aus.”

  46. 46.

    Families with Turkish citizenship often did not know the law or their rights as tenants (Cihan Arin, “The Housing Market and Housing Policies for the Migrant Labor Population in West Berlin,” in Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States, ed. Elizabeth D. Huttman, Wim Blauw, and Juliet Saltman (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 199–208; Özüekren and Ergoz-Karahan, “Housing Experiences of Turkish (Im)Migrants in Berlin and Istanbul”).

  47. 47.

    Maren Möhring, Fremdes Essen: Die Geschichte der ausländischen Gastronomie in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Munich: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2012).

  48. 48.

    Janroj Yilmaz Keles, Media, Diaspora and Conflict: Nationalism and Identity amongst Turkish and Kurdish Migrants in Europe, Google eBook (New York: I.B.Tauris, 2015); Bahar Baser, Diasporas and Homeland Conflicts: A Comparative Perspective, eBook (New York: Routledge, 2016), Chap. 8.

  49. 49.

    Abdelmalek Sayad, The Suffering of the Immigrant, trans. David Macey (Malden, MA: Polity, 2004).

  50. 50.

    See Hans Braun, “Helmut Schelskys Konzpt der ‘nivellierten Mittelstandsgesellschaft’ und die Bundesrepublik der 50er Jahre,” Archive für Sozialgeschichte 29 (1989): 119–223. Helmut Schelsky (1912–84) was a German sociologist. Educated during the Third Reich, he served in the Wehrmacht. After the Second World War Schelsky became a professor in 1949 and helped establish Bielefeld University.

  51. 51.

    Martin Wengeler, “Von ‘Belastungen’, ‘wirtschaftlichem Nutzen’ und ‘politischen Zielen’: Die öffentliche Einwanderungsdiskussion in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz Anfang der 70er Jahre,” in Einwanderungsdiskurse, ed. Thomas Niehr and Karin Böke (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2000), 135–57; Stephen Castles, “The Social Time Bomb: Education of an Underclass in West Germany,” in Ethnicity and Globalization (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), 46–62.

  52. 52.

    Stephen Castles, Ethnicity and Globalization (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), 191–96.

  53. 53.

    Brittany Lehman, “The Limits of Cultural Rights: The Public Debate on Schooling for Moroccan and Turkish Girls in West Germany in the 1980s,” in Gendering Post-1945 German History: Entanglements, ed. Friederike Brünhöfener, Karen Hagemann, and Donna Harsch (New York: Berghahn Books, 2018), Forthcoming.

  54. 54.

    Statistisches Bundesamt, Germany, Statistisches Jahrbuch 1976, 65. Humans, after all, have difficulty comprehending the reality behind large numbers.

  55. 55.

    The stereotype of the “Oriental” built on centuries of stories and images (Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978); Todd Curtis Kontje, German Orientalisms (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004); B. Venkat Mani, Cosmopolitical Claims: Turkish-German Literatures from Nadolny to Pamuk (University of Iowa Press, 2007), 95; Lila Abu-Lughod, Do Muslim Women Need Saving? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013)).

  56. 56.

    Özüekren and Ergoz-Karahan, “Housing Experiences of Turkish (Im)Migrants in Berlin and Istanbul,” 359.

  57. 57.

    Katherine Pratt Ewing, Stolen Honor: Stigmatizing Muslim Men in Berlin (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 169–72.

  58. 58.

    Lehman, “The Limits of Cultural Rights.” See also Lora Wildenthal, German Women for Empire, 1884–1945 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 85–93; Jürgen Zimmer, “In the Service of Empire: Geographers at Berlin’s University between Colonial Studies and Ostforschung (Eastern Research),” in Hitler’s Geographies: The Spatialities of the Third Reich, ed. Paolo Giaccaria and Claudio Minca (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 67–92; Elena Pnevmonidou, “Veiled Narratives: Novalis’ Heinrich von Ofterdingen as a Staging of Orientalist Discourse,” The German Quarterly 84, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 21–40.

  59. 59.

    As discussed in Chap. 3, the eight official “guest worker countries” included Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, and Yugoslavia (Ulrich Herbert and Karin Hunn, “Guest Workers and Policy on Guest Workers in the Federal Republic: From the Beginning of Recruitment in 1955 until Its Halt in 1973,” in The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949–1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 187–218; Mehmet Dösemeci, “The Turkish Drawbridge: European Integration and the Cultural Economics of National Planning,” Contemporary European History 22, no. 4 (November 2013): 627–47).

  60. 60.

    Without the necessary infrastructure, however, the law was not implemented (International Bureau of Education, “Turkey,” in International Yearbook of Education (Geneva: International Bureau of Education, 1970), 146–47; OECD, Reviews of National Policies for Education: Basic Education in Turkey 2007 (Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2007), 30–31, http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264030206-en).

  61. 61.

    Turkish emigration further destabilized the country and access to school as skilled labor moved to places like West Germany in order to receive higher pay than the Turkish state could afford. Part of that destabilization stemmed from the thousands of individuals trained for skilled labor, including 9000 primary school teachers, leaving the country to work in West German factories (Ali Arayıcı, “Les disparités d’alphabétisation et de scolarisation en Turquie,” International Review of Education 46, no. 1–2 (May 2000): 117–46). For more on education reform, see Sam Kaplan, The Pedagogical State: Education and the Politics of National Culture in Post-1980 Turkey (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), 39–56.

  62. 62.

    The state was not a traditional sending country and did not have prior experience trying to influence the identities of its citizens abroad. Only during the Korean War did the country open its borders to its citizens’ emigration (John M. Vander Lippe, “Forgotten Brigade of the Forgotten War: Turkey’s Participation in the Korean War,” Middle Eastern Studies 36, no. 1 (January 1, 2000): 92–102). For more on women’s and family labor migration, see Esra Erdern and Monika Mattes, “Gendered Policies—Gendered Patterns: Female Migration from Turkey to Germany from the 1960s to the 1990s,” in European Encounters: Migrants, Migration, and European Societies Since 1945, ed. Rainer Ohliger, Karen Schönwälder, and Triadafilos Triadafilopoulos (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), 167–85.

  63. 63.

    As Baden-Württemberg required the sending county governments to pay for consular instruction, getting “foreign children” out of preparatory classes and into West German classroom instruction with afterschool consular instruction and German language instruction saved the state money (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft and Mikoleit to Parlamentarischen Staatssekretär et al., “EG-Vorschlag einer Richtlinie des Rates über die schulische Betreuung von Auländerkinder; hier: Stand der Beratungen vor der Ratstagung der Arbeits- und Sozialminister am 28. Juni 1977 in Luxemburg,” IV C 2 – 9702 – 3, June 21, 1977, B 138/20221, Bundesarchiv Koblenz).

  64. 64.

    Kultusministerium des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen to Regierungspräsidenten, October 13, 1964, NW 388-16, Landesarchiv NRW. For the mention of the possibility of constructing such classes for “Greek guest worker children,” see Kultusministerium NRW to Regierungspräsidenten, Erlaß, (October 20, 1964), NW 388-16, Landesarchiv NRW). For less that 20 children, then the Decree “Unterrichtung italienischer Gastarbeiterkinder” from 13 October 1964 (II C 36-6/1 Nr. 2995/64) remained valid (Kultusministerium des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen to Finanzminister des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, “Unterricht für Kinder ausländischer Arbeitnehmer; hier: Erweiterung des schulischen Angebots,” October 28, 1975, NW 388-51, Landesarchiv NRW).

  65. 65.

    “Türkischer Schulunterricht für Gastarbeiterkinder in Deutschland,” IV 4 – 88 (Ankara: Botschaft der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, March 2, 1971), B 93, Bd. 747, PA AA. See also Botschaft der Türkei, “4581/1080”; Botschaft der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Ankara, “Türkischer Schulunterricht für Gastarbeiterkinder in Deutschland,” IV 4 – 88 (Ankara, March 2, 1971), B 93, Bd. 747, PA AA.

  66. 66.

    “Stellungnahme der türkischen Presse zu dem Ausgang der Gespräch der deutsch-türkischen Gemischten Kommission” (Ankara: Deutsche Botschaft Ankara, May 16, 1968), B 85, Bd. 771, PA AA.

  67. 67.

    Not only was the Communist Party legal and thriving in countries like France and Italy (see Donald L. M. Blackmer and Sidney Tarrow, eds., Communism in Italy and France (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015)), but it was actually easier for a Turkish citizen in West Berlin to cross over to East Berlin than for a West German citizen (Jennifer Miller, “Cold War Borders and Suspicious Persons : Turkish ‘Guest Workers’ Between East and West Berlin through the Eyes of the Stasi” (Berlin Porgram Summer Workshop: Germany Looks East, Berlin, 2013)).

  68. 68.

    Botschaft der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Ankara, “Kulturpolitischer Jahresbericht für 1968 aus der Türkei” (Ankara: Auswärtiges Amt, January 23, 1969), 1–2, B 97, Bd. 185, PA AA.

  69. 69.

    “Türkischer Schulunterricht für Gastarbeiterkinder in Deutschland.”

  70. 70.

    Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) was an army officer credited as the founder of the modern Republic of Turkey. He officially served between 1923 and 1938 as the first president of the country (Soner Cagaptay, “Passage to Turkishness: Immigration and Religion in Modern Turkey,” in Citizenship and Ethnic Conflict: Challenging the Nation-State, ed. Haldun Gülalp (New York: Routledge, 2006), 61–82).

  71. 71.

    Kaplan, The Pedagogical State, 41–43, 65–66; Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964).

  72. 72.

    Cagaptay, in their “Passage to Turkishness: Immigration and Religion in Modern Turkey,” discussed how, as its Christian population rapidly shrank after the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, the concept of “Turkish” increasingly emphasized ethnic assimilation and included Islam as part of the concept of the Turkish ethnonational identity despite government protestations of secularism. Allied and Associated Powers, George II, and Atatürk, Treaty of Peace with Turkey: And Other Instruments Signed at Lausanne on July 24, 1923, Together with Agreements Between Greece and Turkey Signed on January 30, 1923, and Subsidiary Documents Forming Part of the Turkish Peace Settlement. (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1923).

  73. 73.

    “2. Sitzung des Ständigen Gemischten deutsch-türkischen Kulturausschusses,” 4, 7; Auswärtige Amt, “Besuch des türkischen Erziehungsministers,” Vermerk (Bonn, April 17, 1961), B 90, Bd. 859, PA AA; “5. Sitzung des mit der Durchführung des deutsch-türkischen Kulturabkommens beauftragten ständigen Gemischten deutsch-türkischen Kulturausschusses,” Protokoll (Ankara, November 19, 1969), 6–7, B 85, Bd. 771, PA AA.

  74. 74.

    After 1961, religious education was written into the constitution with Paragraph 4 of Article 19 stating “religious education and instruction is dependent on the wishes of the parents or the legally appointed guardians of minors” (Recep Kaymakcan, “Religious Education Culture in Modern Turkey,” in International Handbook of the Religious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions in Education, ed. Marian de Souza et al. (Dordrecht: Springer, 2006), 450; İsmail Güven, “Education and Islam in Turkey,” in Education in Turkey, ed. Arnd-Michael Nohl, Arzu Akkoyunlu-Wigley, and Simon Wigley (Münster: Waxmann Verlag, 2008); Özgür H Çinar, “Compulsory Religious Education in Turkey,” Religion and Human Rights 8, no. 3 (2013): 226). By 1970, religious instruction was instituted in year four and five of primary school; one, two, and three of secondary school; and years one and two of high school.

  75. 75.

    Özgür Ulus, The Army and the Radical Left in Turkey: Military Coups, Socialist Revolution and Kemalism (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011), 16–19.

  76. 76.

    “6. Sitzung des mit der Durchführung des deutsch-türkischen Kulturabkommens beauftragten Ständigen Gemischten deutsch-türkischen Kulturausschusses (Bonn, 24. und 25. Mail 1971),” Protokoll (Ankara, May 25, 1971), B 97, Bd. 311, PA AA. See also Ulus, The Army and the Radical Left in Turkey, 154–57; Senol Durgun, “Left-Wing Politics in Turkey: Its Development and Problems,” Arab Studies Quarterly 37, no. 1 (Winter 2015): 9–32.

  77. 77.

    “6. Sitzung des Ständigen Gemischten deutsch-türkischen Kulturausschusses (1971),” 5–7.

  78. 78.

    Rainer Münz, Wolfgang Seifert, and Ralf Ulrich, Zuwanderung nach Deutschland: Strukturen, Wirkungen, Perspektiven, 2nd ed. (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 1999), 69. See also Abadan-Unat, Turks in Europe, 17–31; Münz, Seifert, and Ulrich, Zuwanderung nach Deutschland, 44–45.

  79. 79.

    For a discussion of the experience of Koranschulen, see Sarah Thomsen Vierra, “At Home in Almanya: Turkish-German Space of Belonging in West Germany, 1961–1990” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2011), 216–24. For a discussion of the development of mosques and religious education in the Netherlands, see Murat Es, “Turkish-Dutch Mosques and the Construction of Transnational Spaces in Europe” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2012); Jan Rath, ed., Western Europe and Its Islam (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 160–88.

  80. 80.

    In the 1970s, primary school teachers also began receiving training for providing Islamic instruction. For a summary of the education of religious teachers in Turkey, see Mustafa Koylu, “Religious Education in Modern Turkey,” in Change and Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change and Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Tradition, ed. Sinasi Gündüz and Cafer S. Yaran (Washington, D.C.: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2005), 45–64.

  81. 81.

    “Koranschulen für türkische Kinder islamischen Glaubens,” Drs. 8/2235 (Düsseldorf: Landtag Nordrhein-Westfalen, July 11, 1977); Hermann, “Islamischer Religionsunterricht für türkische Kinder,” Vermerk (Bonn: Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepulik Deutschland, June 9, 1980), B 93, Bd. 1154, PA AA; Hermann and Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der BRD, “1. Sitzung der Kommission ‘Islamischer Religionsunterricht,’” Ergebnisniederschrift (Bonn, May 17, 1983), B 304/7771, Bundesarchiv Koblenz.

  82. 82.

    “Der Hodscha bleut die Suren ein: Nordrhein-Westfalens Lehrern machen die Haß predigenden Koranschulen für türkische Kinder Sorgen,” Süddeutsche Zeitung, 1977, B 93/860, Auswärtiges Amt; “Koranschulen für türkische Kinder islamischen Glaubens”; “Islamischer Religionsunterricht an Schulen des Landes und Tätigkeit türkischer Koranschulen,” PlPr 8/103 2. 05. 1979 S. 6958 B – S. 6960 D (Düsseldorf: Landtag Nordrhein-Westfalen, May 2, 1979).

  83. 83.

    “Koranschulen für türkische Kinder islamischen Glaubens.” M. Sitki Bilmen, “Educational Problems Encountered by the Children of Migrant Workers,” in Turkish Workers in Europe 1960–1975: A Socio-Economic Reappraisal, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1976), 235–52.

  84. 84.

    Furthermore, states like Bavaria continued emphasizing cultural instruction with an eye toward return migration (“Die Brücken zur Heimat nicht abbrechen: Das ‘Offene Modell’ Bayerns,” Schulreport 21 (1974): 20; Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Unterricht und Kultus and Hans Maier, “Unterrichtung von Kindern ausländischer Arbeitnehmer” (Munich: Bayerischer Landtag, July 26, 1974), StK 17606, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv). There were multiple members of both parties that actively disagreed with that stance, including several Ministers of Education. For a discussion of the major (West) German political parties and their stances on migration, see Klaudia Tietze, Einwanderung und die deutschen Parteien: Akzeptanz und Abwehr von Migranten im Widerstreit in der Programmatik von SPD, FDP, den Grünen und CDU/CSU (Berlin: LIT, 2008).

  85. 85.

    See EA 3/505 Bü 405/4 in Stuttgart’s Landesarchiv Baden-Württemberg. In 1976, Baden-Württemberg subsidized 1788 consular courses attended by 39,142 schoolchildren with foreign citizenship (47 percent of the total 83,329). The issue of “former guest workers and their families” had become a hot political topic. It was no longer possible for the Ministry of Education to disregard public opinion about the growing “threat of foreigners” (Landtag von Baden Württemberg, “Drucksache 6/7571: Stellungnahme des Kultusministeriums zu dem Antrag der Abd. Uhri und Gen. (CDU) betr. Kinder ausländischer Arbeitnehmer in unseren Schulen” (Stuttgart, April 18, 1975), EA 8/203 Bü 386, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart; “Unterricht für Kinder ausländischer Arbeitnehemr - Interministerielle Arbeitsgruppe aus Vertretern des Staatsministeriums, des Finanzministeriums, des Ministeriums für Arbeit, Gesundheit und Sozialordnung unter Federfürhrung des Kultusministerium,” Ergebnisprotokoll, (October 20, 1976), EA 3/609 Bü 78, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart).

  86. 86.

    Kultusministerium NRW to Türkische Botschaft, “Beschulung türkischer Kinder in der Stadt Köln, III A 36-6/1, Nr. 2822/69,” July 16, 1969, 69, NW 388-18, Landesarchiv NRW. For the posters, see B 138/38289, Bundesarchiv Koblenz.

  87. 87.

    Domhof, “Gedanken zur Verbesserung des Unterrichts,” 1; Ray C. Rist, Guestworkers in Germany: The Prospects for Pluralism (New York: Praeger, 1978), 190–92. Domhof also held the post of Assistant Undersecretary in North Rhine-Westphalia’s Ministry of Education (to Jacoby, “Domhof,” Note, (December 12, 1974), BAC 144/1987 53, Commission of the European Union).

  88. 88.

    SPD Member Willi von Helden was a teacher. He served as member of the Baden-Württemberg Parliament (Landtag), 1964–1972.

  89. 89.

    “31. Sitzung des Landtags: Punkt 17 der Tagesordnung” (Stuttgart: Landtag von Baden-Württemberg, April 24, 1969), 1643. For an example of descriptions of “ghettoization” and “ghetto education” in public media, see Ulrich Bäder, “Hilfe für die ‘Getto-Kinder’: Opladen: Modellversuch soll Bildungschancen der ausländischen Schüler verbessern,” Neue Rhein Zeitung, May 25, 1973.

  90. 90.

    “31. Sitzung des Landtags: Punkt 17 der Tagesordnung,” 1643. Lothar Späth (born 1937) was a West German politician and manager. He first became a member of the Bundestag in 1968 and then the chair of the CDU-Faction in 1972. He served as Ministerpräsident of Baden-Württemberg, 1978–1991. See “Antrag des Abg. Späth zu dem Entwurf des Staatshaushaltsplans für 1969, Einzelplan 04/14: Kultusministerium: betr.: Erfüllung der Schulpflicht durch Kinder und Jugendliche ausländischer Staatsangehörigkeit” (Stuttgart: Landtag von Baden-Württemberg, December 31, 1968).

  91. 91.

    Rist, Guestworkers in Germany, 187–92.

  92. 92.

    For a complete chart of when the different Länder end the primary school level, see Helbig and Nikolai, Die Unvergleichbaren, 82–83.

  93. 93.

    During this period, the West German federal and state governments worked together to alter the West German secondary system, including abolishing school fees for higher levels of secondary school. For the Länder, ensuring that the children’s right to education then necessitated the state guarantee the possibility of success through appropriate programs. For more on education reform, see Jürgen Oelkers, Reformpädagogik: eine kritische Dogmengeschichte (Munich: Juventa, 2005).

  94. 94.

    Veronika Fischer, “Der Internationale Frauen Treff,” in Fremdheit überwinden (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 1990), 155–69; Karen Hagemann, “A West-German ‘Sonderweg’? Family, Work, and the Half-Day Time Policy of Childcare and Schooling,” in Children, Families, and States: Time Policies of Childcare, Preschool and Primary Education in Europe, ed. Karen Hagemann, Konrad H. Jarausch, and Cristina Allenmahn-Ghionda (New York: Berghahn Books, 2011), 275–300; Thomas Coelen and Bernd Dollinger, “Geschichte, Gegenwart und Perspektiven der Ganztagsschule,” in Handbuch Bildungs- und Erziehungssoziologie, Bildung und Gesellschaft (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2012), 763–77.

  95. 95.

    Erdern and Mattes, “Gendered Policies—Gendered Patterns: Female Migration from Turkey to Germany from the 1960s to the 1990s”; Christina Allemann-Ghionda, “Ganztagschule im europäischen Vergleich: Zeitpolitiken modernisieren – durch Vergleich Standards setzen?,” Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, no. supplement no. 54 (2009): 190–208.

  96. 96.

    Pierre Bourdieu, Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture, trans. Jean-Claude Passeron, 2nd ed. (London: Sage Publications, 1990); Don Reid, “Towards a Social History of Suffering: Dignity, Misery and Disrespect,” Social History 27, no. 3 (October 3, 2002): 343–58.

  97. 97.

    Der Bundesminister für Bildung und Wissenschaft, “Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Große Anfrage der Abgeordneten Lattmann, et al. und der Fraktionen der SPD , FDP, ‘zur Bildungspolitik,’” 8/1703, April 13, 1978, 47; Reinhard Grindel, Ausländerbeauftragte: Aufgaben und Rechtsstellung (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1984); Beauftragte der Bundesregierung für die Integration der Ausländischen Arbeitnehmer und ihrer Familienangehörigen, ed., Anregungen der Ausländerbeauftragten zur Novellierung des Ausländerrechts (Bonn: Das Amt der Ausländerbeauftragten, 1987).

  98. 98.

    Michelle J. Neuman and Peer Shanny, Equal from the Start: Promoting Educational Opportunity for All Preschool Children – Learning from the French Experience. A Welcome for Every Child Series (New York: French-American Foundation, 2002); Markus Freitag and Raphaela Schlicht, “Educational Federalism in Germany: Foundations of Social Inequality in Education,” Governance 22, no. 1 (2009): 62–63.

  99. 99.

    Der Bundesminister für Bildung und Wissenschaft, “8/1703,” 40.

  100. 100.

    See “Sprachhilfe für ausländische Kinder: Denkendorfer Modell,” Bericht über das erste Arbeitsjahr, (November 1973); Gert Bürgel, “Intensive Bemühungen um Ausländer-Integration: Kein Getto in Denkendorf: Ein Nahziel: Hauptschulabschluß für die Kinder,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, September 13, 1975.

  101. 101.

    Landtag NRW, “Drucksache 7/3137: Antwort der Landesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage 1052 der Abg. Doris Altewischer (CDU) betr.: Berufsschulpflichtige Ausländer” (Düsseldorf: Landtag NRW, October 12, 1973); Landtag NRW, “Drucksache 7/2837: Antwort der Landesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage 1066 der Abg. van Nes Ziegler (SPD) betr.: Anteil ausländischer Schüler an Grund- und Hauptschulen des Landes” (Düsseldorf: Landtag NRW, June 27, 1973).

  102. 102.

    Under Baden-Württemberg School Law, youths were required either to attend three years of vocational training (Article 47 Paragraph 1) or finish the school year during which they turned 21 (Article 47 Paragraph 3). Youths with limited German language skills were to attend intensive German training. If there were not enough youths for a class, the youth could temporarily be freed until they achieved a sufficient language proficiency needed to participate in vocational training. Further release from compulsory schooling was not permissible, even if the youth had completed their vocational training in another country, such as Yugoslavia where compulsory vocational training ended with the eighteenth year (Landtag von Baden Württemberg, “Drucksache 5/1473: Stellungnahme des Kultusministeriums zu dem Antrag der Abg. Haase und Gen. (SPD) betr. Schulpflicht für jugendliche Gastarbeiter” (Stuttgart: Landtag von Baden Württemberg, November 28, 1969); Landtag von Baden Württemberg, “Drucksache 5/2860/I: Schriftliche Antwort des Kultusministeriums auf die Kleine Anfrage des Abg. Dr. Gurk (CDU) betr.: Berufsschulpflicht von Gastarbeiterinnen und Gastarbeitern” (Stuttgart: Landtag von Baden Württemberg, September 15, 1970)).

  103. 103.

    Kultusministerium Baden-Württemberg im Hause, “Besuch deutschen Kindergärten durch ausländische Kinder,” 9-Sep-76, EA 8/203 Bü 388, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart; “Hilfe für Ausländerkinder im deutschen Kindergarten,” Stuttgarter Zeitung, May 29, 1978, EA 8/203 Bü 395, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart; Fridtjof Theegarten, “Erstmals im Land: Sonderkurse für Gastarbeiterkinder im Vorschulalter: Bambini lernen Deutsch,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, April 7, 1978, EA 8/203 Bü 394, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart.

  104. 104.

    UNESCO, “Item 21.3 of the Provisional Agenda: International Education Year,” 15 C/53 (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, September 12, 1968).

  105. 105.

    Controlled from 1969 to 1981 by the FDP-SPD coalition under Minister of Education Hans Leussink (1969–1972). Bundesministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft, for more information on the role of the Federal Ministry of German education, see Christoph Führ, “Zur Koordination der Bildungspolitik durch Bund und Länder,” in Handbuch der deutschen Bildungsgeschichte: 1945 bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Christa Berg, Christoph Führ, and Carl-Ludwig Furck, vol. 1, 6 (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1998), 74–75. For more on the homework help programs, see Kultusministerium NRW to Regierungspräsidenten Aachen, Detmold, Düsseldorf, Köln und Münster, “Schulunterricht für Kinder ausländsicher Arbeitnehmer; hier: Aktion ‘Hausaufgaben-hilfe für Ausländerkinder,’” August 10, 1970, BR 1025-218, Landesarchiv NRW; Monika Bistram, “Verständigung durch Bildung: Hausaufgabenhilfe für Ausländerkinder,” Hamburger Lehrerzeitung 24.1971, no. 10 (1971): 359–60; “Kultusminister Jürgen Girgensohn: ‘Helft ausländischen Kinder bei ihren Hausaufgaben,’” Nordrhein-Westfalen Pressemitteilung, January 9, 1971, Landesarchiv NRW; “Hausaufgaben - Ausländerkinder brauchen Hilfe,” Das Diakonische Werk: Neue Ton-Bild-Reihe über ausländische Arbeitnehmer 4 (April 1972): 10.

  106. 106.

    Ulrike Popp, “Die sozialen Funktionen schulischer Bildung,” in Handbuch der deutschen Bildungsgeschichte: 1945 bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Christa Berg, Christoph Führ, and Carl-Ludwig Furck, vol. 6 (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1998), 267; Margitta Rudolph, “Außerschulische Lernbegleitung,” in Erziehungs- und Bildungspartnerschaften, ed. Waldemar Stange et al. (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2012), 384–90; Frederick Erickson, “Transformation and School Success: The Politics and Culture of Educational Achievement,” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 18, no. 4 (1987): 335–56.

  107. 107.

    Essentially intensive tutoring available to both “German” and “foreign” children, although in later years money was specifically earmarked for the “foreign” schoolchildren (Kultusministerium NRW, “Schulversuch ‘Silentien,’” Gemeinsames Amtsblatt des Kultusministeriums und des Ministeriums für Wissenschaft und Forschung des Landes NRW, July 7, 1971, 424).

  108. 108.

    Churches and some civic groups provided programs as well. Local libraries set up homework programs and church groups set up preschools. Although hardly covering all children, these measures did alleviate some need even as some of the programs showcased the social divide between “German” and “foreign.” See Der Bundesminister für Bildung und Wissenschaft, “8/1703,” 40.

  109. 109.

    Council for Cultural Cooperation and Kultusministerkonferenz, “Die Vorschulerziehung von Wanderarbeitnehmerkinder,” Council of Europe, October 12, 1977, B 93, Bd. 857, PA AA; “Schulreifetests bestätigen das städtische Konzept: Erfolgreiche Vorschulklassen für Ausländerkinder / Hilfreiche Mitarbeit der Eltern,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, June 24, 1981; Ministerium für Arbeit, Gesundheit und Soziales NRW, “Vorläufige Richtlinien über die Gewährung von Zuwendungen für Hilfen zur Einschulung (vorschulische Förderung von Ausländischen Kindern),” Rund Erlaß (Düsseldorf, February 5, 1988); Andrea Lanfranchi, Schulerfolg von Migrationskindern: Die Bedeutung familienergänzender Betreuung im Vorschulalter (Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 2002).

  110. 110.

    Both church organizations opposed all-day childcare as a threat to the family. They requested and received state support but rejected state control.

  111. 111.

    Lingenberg, “Bei Ausländerkindern ‘tickt eine Zeitbombe.’”

  112. 112.

    Key L. Ulrich, “Das Leben im Ghetto ist ihnen aufgezwungen worden,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, June 28, 1978; Konrad Adam, “Hauptschule: Ghetto für Ausländerkinder?: Jeder siebte Schüler scheitert—In der Gesamtschule überfordert,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, April 26, 1979, EA 8/203 Bü 397, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart; Dieter Fritz, “Schule für italienische Gastarbeiterkinder in Reutlingen eingerichtet: Das eigentlich Neue an dem Modell: Die Kinder aus dem Ghetto herausholen: Chancen der Kinder in der Bundesrepublik und in ihrer Heimat verbessern,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, August 24, 1979.

  113. 113.

    Wolfram Köhler, “Ein Problem, für das es keine Patentlösung gibt: Analphabeten in zwei Sprachen: Ratlosigkeit über die Schulausbildung der Gastarbeiterkinder in Deutschland,” Badische Neueste Nachrichten, June 3, 1978, EA 8/203 Bü 395, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart; Martina Kemff, “Die meisten Ausländerkinder verlassen die Schule ohne Abschulß: Die werden zu Analphabeten in zwei Sprachen,” Die Welt, March 28, 1979.

  114. 114.

    Rita Chin, The Guest Worker Question in Postwar Germany (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Georg Meck, “Erfolgsgeschichten: Der Aufstieg der Gastarbeiter-Kinder,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, January 8, 2008.

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Lehman, B. (2019). Equal Opportunities for West German Foreign Residents (1968–1977). In: Teaching Migrant Children in West Germany and Europe, 1949–1992. Palgrave Studies in the History of Childhood. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97728-7_5

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