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Gems in the Early Modern World pp 197–220Cite as

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The Repudiation and Persistence of Lapidary Medicine in Eighteenth-Century Dutch Medicine and Pharmacy

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Abstract

Until the eighteenth century, most medical practitioners and natural philosophers were persuaded of the positive effects of at least some gemstones on the human body. In this chapter, Hendriksen argues that as the place of chemistry in universities was consolidated in the eighteenth century, natural philosophers became increasingly critical about the role of minerals, and particularly gemstones, in medicine. However, as she demonstrates, a complex set of social and economic factors meant that this new, critical understanding of gemstones as materia medica in academic chemistry and medicine only slowly transpired in apothecary handbooks and pharmacopeia, and probably in everyday medical practice too.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Nichola Erin Harris, “The Idea of Lapidary Medicine: Its Circulation and Practical Applications in Medieval and Early Modern England: 1000–1750” (PhD thesis, Rutgers University, 2009), 197.

  2. 2.

    Harry A. M. Snelders, Van Alchemie Tot Chemie En Chemische Industrie Rond 1900, vol. 1 of De Geschiedenis van de Scheikunde in Nederland (Delft: Delftse Universitaire Pers, 1993), 34–42. Eric Jorink, Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575–1715 (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2010).

  3. 3.

    Marieke Hendriksen, “Boerhaave’s Mineral Chemistry and its Influence on Eighteenth-century Pharmacy in the Netherlands”, Ambix 65:3 (2018). https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00026980.2018.1488099.

  4. 4.

    Harris, “The Idea of Lapidary Medicine”.

  5. 5.

    For example, Albertus Magnus in his thirteenth-century Book of Minerals argues that the kind of stone that is formed in the earth is determined by a formative power that descends from the heavens through the influence of the stars. The supposed formation of the seven metals under the influence of the seven planets is probably the best-known example of this process. See Albertus Magnus, Book of Minerals, trans. Dorothy Wyckoff (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), xxvi–xxvii, xxx–xxxiii, xxxv.

  6. 6.

    Cristopher J. Duffin, “The Gem Electuary,” in A History of Geology and Medicine, ed. C.J. Duffin, R.T.J. Moody, and C. Gardner-Thorpe (London: Geological Society of London, 2013), 81–111.

  7. 7.

    “Hyacintus wordt vervalscht met glas van loot/maer men wordt dat door het gewicht ende hardigheydt haest geware/want dit glas is sachter ende swaerder dan den Hyacinthus”. Jan Bisschop, Pharmacia Galenica & Chymica, Dat Is Apotheker Ende Alchymiste Ofte Distilleer-Konste: Begrijpende de Beginselen Ende Fondamenten Der Selver. Verdeylt in Acht Boecken, Tot Onderwijsinge Der Apothekers / Door Een Liefhebber Derselver Konste Nieu Licht Der Apotekers En Distilleerkonst (Amsterdam: Joannes van Ravesteyn, 1662), 24, 34.

  8. 8.

    Nicholas Culpeper and John Allan, Pharmacopoeia Londinensis, or, the London dispensatory (London: Nicolas Boone, 1720), 49–51, 154.

  9. 9.

    Robert Boyle, preface to Essay About the Origine &Virtues of Gems (London, 1672), i–ii.

  10. 10.

    Boyle, Essay, 5–6. Hyphens in original.

  11. 11.

    Boyle, Essay, 28–30. Some of these ideas, such as that the colour of gems was due to metals, were derived from earlier works, for example, Biringuccio’s De la pirotechnia (1540).

  12. 12.

    Boyle, Essay, 40–41.

  13. 13.

    Boyle, Essay, 105–109.

  14. 14.

    Boyle, Essay, 119.

  15. 15.

    Boyle, Essay, 122.

  16. 16.

    Herman Boerhaave, Elementa Chemiae, Quae Anniversario Labore Docuit in Publicis, Privatisque Scholis (Leiden: Isaak Severinus, 1732). The edition used here is Herman Boerhaave, A New Method of Chemistry: Including the History, Theory, and Practice of the Art: Translated from the Original Latin of Dr. Boerhaave’s Elementa Chemiæ, as Published by Himself. To Which Are Added, Notes; and an Appendix, … With Sculptures. Translated by Peter Shaw (London, 1741), which is a reliable translation of the Elementa. For extensive discussion of Boerhaave’s chemistry, see Rina Knoeff, Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738): Calvinist Chemist and Physician (Amsterdam: Edita, 2002), and John Powers, Inventing Chemistry: Herman Boerhaave and the Reform of the Chemical Arts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).

  17. 17.

    Boerhaave, A New Method, vol. I, 2.

  18. 18.

    Boerhaave, A New Method, 132.

  19. 19.

    Magnus, Book of Minerals, 42.

  20. 20.

    Boerhaave, A New Method, vol. I, 74.

  21. 21.

    Boerhaave, A New Method, vol. I, 67–70.

  22. 22.

    The book was published as Herman Boerhaave, Boerhaave’s Materia medica, or the druggist’s guide, and the physician and apothecary’s table-book: Being a compleat account of all drugs (London: J. Hodges, 1755). This was supposedly an English translation of a Latin manuscript by James Carol, a former student of Boerhaave.

  23. 23.

    Boerhaave, Boerhaave’s Materia medica, 158.

  24. 24.

    Robertus de Farvacques and Johannes Schróder, Medicina Pharmaceutica, of Groote Algemeene Schatkamer Der Drôgbereidende Geneeskonst (Leiden: Isaak Severinus, 1741).

  25. 25.

    Robertus de Farvacques, Medicina Pharmaceutica, of Groote Algemeene Schatkamer Der Drôgbereidende Geneeskonst (Brussel: Francois Foppens, 1681), 126–30.

  26. 26.

    For example, Bisschop, Pharmacia Galenica & Chymica; Engelbertus Capueel, Clarius et Majus Lumen Pharmacopaeorum (Antwerpen: Weduwe van Jean François Lucas, 1724), and Enchiridion Medicum; Oft, Medicyn-Boeksken (Antwerpen: De Weduwe van C.I. Vander Hey, 1757). De Farvacques, Medicina Pharmaceutica. Gerrit De Groot, Pharmacopoea Amstelredamensis, of Amsteldammer Apotheek, in Welke Allerlei Medicamenten, Te Amsteldam (11th ed. Amsterdam, 1756). Kornelis Elzevier, Lexicon Galeno-Chymico-Pharmaceuticum Universale, of Groot-Algemeen Apothekers Woordenboek, Vervattende de Voorschriften Der Samengestelde Geneesmiddelen, Die in Alle Bekende Dispensatorien Worden Gevonden: Uit Meer Dan LXXX Zoo Oude Als Nieuwe Artsenyboeken by Een Gebragt (Amsterdam: by H.Gartman, W.Vermandel en J.W.Smit, 1790). Pieter van der Eyk, Nieuwe Nederduitsche Apotheek: Op Eene Klaare En Verstaanbaare Wyze Onderwys Gevende Omtrent de Beste Dagelyks Gebruikt Wordende Geneeskundige Bereidingen; Waar in Inzonderheid de Scheikundige Bewerkingen, Volgens de Gronden Der … Heeren Boerhaave, Geoffroy … Zoo Duidelyk Beschreeven Worden (Leiden: Pieter van der Eyk, 1753). Pieter van Hamel, Pharmacopaea Hodierna, Ofte Hedendaegsche Apotheek; Waer in de Voornaemste En Meest in Gebruik Zijnd (Amsterdam: M. Schalekamp, 1774). Wouter van Lis, Pharmacopoea Galeno-Chemico-Medica… = Meng- Schei- … / Wouter van Lis Meng- Schei- En Geneeskonstige Artseny-Winkel (Amsterdam: Jan Morterre, 1747). Jospeh Franz von Jacquin and Gerardus Plaat. Leerboek Der Algemeene En Artsenijkundige Scheikunde (Leiden: by A. en J. Honkoop, 1794). Pharmacopea Amstelredamensis, of Amsterdammer Apotheek, in Welke Allerlei Medicamenten, Tot Amsterdam in ’T Gebruik Zynde, Konstiglyk Bereyd Worden (7th ed. Amsterdam: Nicolaas ten Hoorn, 1714). Pharmacopoea Roterodamensis Galeno-Chymica, of Rotterdamsche Galenische En Chymische Apotheek (Rotterdam: Philippus Losel, 1728).

  27. 27.

    Elzevier, Lexicon Galeno-Chymico-Pharmaceuticum Universale, 683.

  28. 28.

    Van Lis, Pharmacopoea Galeno-Chemico-Medica, 109.

  29. 29.

    Wouter van Lis, Dissertatio Medica Inauguralis de Aloë (Utrecht: Johannes Broedelet, 1745), “Praefatio”, verso 2: “Quid de auro, Lapidibus pretiosis, margaritis; & eorum praeparationibus sentiam, sine suco dicam; haec Omnia respectu duritiei & splendoris, quidquid alii de his etiam clamitent, plus ornament quam medicamento inservire censeo; nam plurima eorum digestion penitus subjecta non sunt, perpauca & illa quidem ex animalibus sumta, (Pedram del porco sale volatile amaro praeditam, si exceperis) vim absorbentem aeque ac lapides cancrorum possident…” Pedro del porco is the gallstone (bezoar) of the Indian or Malacca porcupine; crab stones, also known as crab’s eyes, are the stony concretions on the heads of crayfish. See Robert Hooper, A New Medical Dictionary: Containing an Explanation of the Terms in Anatomy, Physiology … and the Various Branches of Natural Philosophy Connected with Medicine (Philadelphia: M. Carey & Son, 1817), 78, 113.

  30. 30.

    Duffin, “Lapis de Goa: The ‘Cordial Stone,’” Pharmaceutical Historian 40, no. 2 (2010): 22–30.

  31. 31.

    Van Lis, Pharmacopoea, 139.

  32. 32.

    See, for example, Gerard A. Lindeboom and Herman Boerhaave, Boerhaave’s Correspondence, 3 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1962); G.A. Lindeboom and Herman Boerhaave, Boerhaave’s Brieven Aan Bassand (Haarlem: Erven F. Bohn, 1957).

  33. 33.

    Hieronymus D. Gaub, “Chemiae Praxis. Notes of Lectures by an Unnamed Student. Produced in Leyden”, Wellcome Library Manuscripts, call number WMS 4 MS.2479. H.D. Gaub, “Dictata in Chemiam” Zeeuws Archief Middelburg, MS call numbers 6271, 6270.

  34. 34.

    For a nuanced view, see the essays in The Dutch Republic in the Eighteenth Century: Decline, Enlightenment, and Revolution, ed. Margaret C. Jacob and Wijnand W. Mijnhardt (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992).

  35. 35.

    Hans Bots, Van Universitaire Gemeenschap Tot Academische Kring: Enige Aspecten Met Betrekking Tot De Opkomst En Ontwikkeling Van Geleerde Academies En Genootschappen in West-Europa (Amsterdam: Genootschap ter bevordering van Natuur-, Genees- en Heelkunde, 1976).

  36. 36.

    Willem Frijhoff, “Medische beroepen en verzorgingspatroon in de Franse tijd: een dwarsdoorsnede”, Tijdschrift voor de geschiedenis der Geneeskunde, Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde en Techniek 8, no. 3 (1985), 94.

  37. 37.

    Henriette A. Bosman-Jelgersma, Vijf Eeuwen Delftse Apothekers (Amsterdam: Meesters, 1979), 183–4.

  38. 38.

    Pharmacopoea Harlemensis Galeno-chemica: Senatus auctoritate munita (Haarlem: Petrus van Assendelft, 1741), 130.

  39. 39.

    Anton Wiechmann, De Verzameling Medicijnen van Een Amsterdamse Stadsdokter (Leiden: Museum Boerhaave, 1992), 12.

  40. 40.

    Pharmacopoea Amstelaedamensis renovata (Amsterdam: Petrum van den Berge, 1726), 13, 136: “Super marmor tamdiu laeviga, cum aqua rosarum, donec ori inditus, nullum sub dentibus stridorem edat; deinde in pastillos regide in umbra siccandos”.

  41. 41.

    Van Lis, Pharmacopoea, preface. He referred to the official Rotterdam pharmacopeia from 1735.

  42. 42.

    Wiechmann, De Verzameling, 12.

  43. 43.

    Bosman-Jelgersma, Vijf Eeuwen, 167–74.

  44. 44.

    It should be noted that plant-based pharmaceutical preparations remained dominant until the discovery of the possibility of isolating plant alkaloids from 1804 onwards and subsequently of the artificial production of such alkaloids from 1886. See John P. Swann, “The Pharmaceutical Industries”, in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. 4: Modern Life and Earth Sciences, ed. Peter J. Bowler and John V. Pickstone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 127–8; A. F. P. Morson, “Operative Chymist”, Clio Medica 45 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), 34, 60, 79.

  45. 45.

    Museum Boerhaave Library call numbers BOERH a 176, BOERH a 322, BOERH a 335, BOERH a 323, BOERH a 313, BOERH A 612, BOERH f18352. Leiden University Library call number MB: a 308, MB: a inst 26.

  46. 46.

    Pharmacopoea Amstelodamensis nova (Amsterdam: Petrum Henricum Bronsberg, 1792), 190.

  47. 47.

    Sebald J. Brugmans et al., Pharmacopoea Batava (Amsterdam: Allart, 1805), S.J. Brugmans et al., Bataafsche Apotheek (Amsterdam: Allart, 1807). Also see Willem Frijhoff, “Medische beroepen”, 1985.

  48. 48.

    Christine Lehman, “Alchemy Revisited by the Mid-Eighteenth Century Chemists in France: An Unpublished Manuscript by Pierre-Joseph Macquer”, Nuncius, 28 (2013): 165–216, 192.

  49. 49.

    Petrus Johannes Kasteleyn, Beschouwende En Werkende Pharmaceutische, Oeconomische, En Natuurkundige Chemie, 3 vols. (Amsterdam: Willem Holtrop, 1786), vol. 3, vi–vii.

  50. 50.

    Although some information is available on the situation in England—see, for example, Harris, “The Idea”, and Tom Blaen, Medical Jewels, Magical Gems: Precious Stones in Early Modern Britain (Crediton: The Medieval Press, 2012), 189–318—very little is known about the fate of lapidary medicine in France and the German lands.

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Acknowledgement

This project has received funding from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) through the VIDI research project “Vital Matters” (2012–2017) and from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 648718).

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    Marieke Hendriksen

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    Sven Dupré

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Hendriksen, M. (2019). The Repudiation and Persistence of Lapidary Medicine in Eighteenth-Century Dutch Medicine and Pharmacy. In: Bycroft, M., Dupré, S. (eds) Gems in the Early Modern World. Europe's Asian Centuries. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96379-2_8

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