Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Racial Identity: Choices, Context, and Consequences

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Biracial Families

Abstract

Greater public visibility, growing social acceptance, and institutional recognition have opened up the opportunity for many contemporary biracial individuals to choose from a variety of racial identity options. Although macro-level (e.g., legal) barriers have all but disappeared, microlevel challenges (e.g., multiracial microaggressions) still persist for some in the growing biracial population. Thus, it is important to understand how racial identity options are exercised differently within and across particular social contexts, and how these options in turn affect biracial individuals’ development. In this chapter, first we discuss theory and research on racial identity and identification among contemporary biracial people, followed by a brief review of work on the contextual factors that influence racial identity formation in this population. Next, we explore extant research on the association of racial identity to a host of developmental outcomes (e.g., depression, self-esteem, psychological well-being, life satisfaction). In recognition of the heterogeneous nature of the biracial population, we review, where available, research for specific biracial subgroups (e.g., Black-White, Latino-White, and Asian-White). Drawing on relevant theory and empirical findings, we will then make specific recommendations on how to support biracial children’s racial identity formation and social-emotional development and on how to enhance biracial adults’ functioning. Finally, we summarize important gaps in current research and identify needed directions for future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Binning, K. R., Unzueta, M. M., Huo, Y. J., & Molina, L. E. (2009). The interpretation of multiracial status and its relation to social engagement and psychological well-being. Journal of Social Issues, 65, 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.01586.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bracey, J. R., Bamaca, M. Y., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2004). Examining ethnic identity and self-esteem among biracial and monoracial adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000013424.93635.68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brittian, A. S., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Derlan, C. L. (2013). An examination of biracial college youths’ family ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and adjustment: Do self-identification labels and university context matter? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(2), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029438

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunsma, D. L. (2005). Interracial families and the racial identification of mixed-race children: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Social Forces, 84, 1131–1157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunsma, D. L. (2006). Public categories, private identities: Exploring regional differences in the biracial experience. Social Science Research, 35, 555–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunsma, D. L., & Rockquemore, K. A. (2001). The new color complex: Appearances and biracial identity. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 1, 225–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R., & Kao, G. (2013). Bearing the burden of whiteness: The implications of racial self-identification for multiracial adolescents’ school belonging and academic achievement. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(5), 747–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.628998

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, M. E. (2007). Thinking outside the (Black) box: Measuring Black and multiracial identification on surveys. Social Science Research, 36, 921–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, M. E., & Eggerling-Boeck, J. (2006). ‘What about the children?’ The psychological and social well-being of multiracial adolescents. Sociological Quarterly, 47(1), 147–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charmaraman, L., & Grossman, J. M. (2010). Importance of race and ethnicity: An exploration of Asian, Black, Latino, and multiracial adolescent identity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 144–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018668

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chavez, G. F., & Sanchez, D. T. (2010). A clearer picture of multiracial substance use: Rates and correlates of alcohol and tobacco use in multiracial adolescents and adults. Race and Social Problems, 2(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-010-9023-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, H.-J., Balan, S., & Price, R. K. (2012). Association of contextual factors with drug use and binge drinking among White, Native American, and mixed-race adolescents in the general population. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1426–1441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheref, S., Lane, R., Polanco-Roman, L., Gadol, E., & Miranda, R. (2015). Suicidal ideation among racial/ethnic minorities: Moderating effects of rumination and depressive symptoms. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 31–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, Y., Harachi, T. W., Gillmore, M. R., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). Are multiracial adolescents at greater risk? Comparisons of rates, patterns, and correlates of substance use and violence between monoracial and multiracial adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, Y., He, M., Herrenkohl, R. F., Catalano, R. F., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2012). Multiple identification and risks: Examination of peer factors across multiracial and single-race youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 847–862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9750-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, T. T., Corneille, M., & Coman, E. (2013a). Developmental trajectories of alcohol use among monoracial and biracial Black adolescents and adults. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 45(3), 249–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2013.805980

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, T. T., Doyle, O., & Clincy, A. (2013b). Age of first cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use among U.S. biracial/ethnic youth: A population-based study. Addictive Behaviors, 38, 2450–2454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.04.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, T. T., Nguyen, A. B., & Coman, E. (2015). Smoking trajectories among monoracial and biracial Black adolescents and young adults. Journal of Drug Issues, 45(1), 22–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, V. H., & Carter, M. M. (2007). Biracial self-identification: Impact on trait anxiety, social anxiety, and depression. Journal of Theory and Research, 7, 103–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooney, T. M., & Radina, E. M. (2000). Adjustment problems in adolescence: Are multiracial children at risk? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(4), 433–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csizmadia, A., Brunsma, D. L., & Cooney, T. M. (2012). Racial identification and developmental outcomes among Black-White multiracial youth: A review from a life course perspective. Advances in Life Course Research, 17, 34–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csizmadia, A., Leslie, L., & Nazarian, R. (2015). Understanding and treating interracial families. In S. Browning, K. Pasley, S. Browning, & K. Pasley (Eds.), Contemporary families: Translating research into practice (pp. 89–107). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csizmadia, A., Rollins, A., & Kaneakua, J. P. (2014). Ethnic-racial socialization and its correlates in families of Black-White biracial children. Family Relations, 63, 259–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, L. D. (2016). The role of gender, class, and religion in biracial Americans’ racial labeling decisions. American Sociological Review, 81(1), 57–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. F. (1991). Who is Black? One nation’s definition. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, J. M., & Kao, G. (2007). Are racial identities of multiracials stable? Changing self-identification among single and multiple race individuals. Social Psychology Quarterly, 70(4), 405–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, S., Reynolds, J. L., Hsu, W.-W., Barnes, J., & Tyler, K. (2014). Examining multiracial youth in context: Ethnic identity development and mental health outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1688–1699. https://doi.org/10.1007/s109064

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaither, S. E. (2015). ‘Mixed’ results: Multiracial research and identity explorations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(2), 114–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414558115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goings, T. C., Butler-Bente, E., McGovern, T., & Howard, M. O. (2016a). Prevalence and correlates of substance use in Black, White, and biracial Black-White adolescents: Evidence for a biracial intermediate phenomenon. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86(5), 527–539. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goings, T. C., Hidalgo, S. J. T., & McGovern, T. (2016b). Similarities and differences in alcohol trajectories: Testing the catch-up effect among biracial black subgroups. Addictive Behaviors, 60, 13–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, D. R., & Sim, J. J. (2002). Who is multiracial? Assessing the complexity of lived race. American Sociological Review, 67(4), 614–627.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, M. (2004). Forced to choose: Some determinants of racial identification in multiracial adolescents. Child Development, 75(3), 730–748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, M. (2009). The Black-White-Other achievement gap: Testing theories of academic performance among multiracial and monoracial adolescents. Sociology of Education, 82(1), 20–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hitlin, S., Brown, J. S., & Elder Jr., G. H. (2006). Racial self-categorization in adolescence: Multiracial development and social pathways. Child Development, 77(5), 1298–1308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, N. A., & Bullock, J. J. (2013). Understanding who reported multiple races in the U.S. Decennial Census: Results from Census 2000 and the 2010 Census. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 62, 5–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerwin, C., & Ponterotto, J. G. (1995). Biracial identity development: Theory and research. In J. G. Ponterotto, J.M. Casas, L.A. Suzuki, and C. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 199–217). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khanna, N. (2010). “If you’re half Black, you’re just Black:” reflected appraisals and the persistence of the one-drop rule. The Sociological Quarterly, 51, 96–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lou, E., & Lalonde, R. N. (2015). Signs of transcendence? A changing landscape of multiraciality in the 21st century. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 45, 85–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lou, E., Lalonde, R. N., & Wilson, C. (2011). Examining a multidimensional framework of racial identity across different biracial groups. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2, 79–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lusk, E. M., Taylor, M. J., Nanney, J. T., & Austin, C. C. (2010). Biracial identity and its relation to self-esteem and depression in mixed Black-White biracial individuals. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 19, 109–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKown, C., & Strambler, M. J. (2009). Developmental antecedents and social and academic consequences of stereotype-consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 80, 1643–1659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milan, S., & Keiley, M. K. (2000). Biracial youth and families in therapy: Issues and interventions. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 26, 305–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miville, M. L., Constantine, M. G., Baysden, M. F., & So-Lloyd, G. (2005). Chameleon changes: An exploration of racial identity themes of biracial people. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.507

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L., Sriken, J., Davidoff, K. C., Wong, Y., & McLean, K. (2013). Microaggressions within families: Experiences of multiracial people. Family Relations: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 62(1), 190–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neblett, E. W., Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, R. (1928). Human migration and the marginal man. American Journal of Sociology, 33, 881–893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, L. (2004). Fitting in and feeling good: Patterns of self-evaluation and psychological stress among biracial adolescent girls. Women & Therapy, 27(1/2), 217–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quillian, L., & Redd, R. (2009). The friendship networks of multiracial adolescents. Social Science Research, 38(2), 279–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.09.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radina, E. M., & Cooney, T. M. (2000). Relationship quality between multiracial adolescents and their biological parents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(4), 445–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rockquemore, K. A. (1998). Between Black and White: Exploring the “biracial” experience. Race & Society, 1(2), 197–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9524(99)80044-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rockquemore, K. A., & Brunsma, D. L. (2002). Beyond Black: Biracial identity in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rockquemore, K. A., Brunsma, D. L., & Delgado, D. J. (2009). Racing to theory or retheorizing race? Understanding the struggle to build a multiracial identity theory. Journal of Social Issues, 65(1), 13–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.01585.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, W. D. (2005). The end of the one-drop rule? Labeling of multiracial children in Black intermarriages. Sociological Forum, 20, 35–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11206-005-1897-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez, D. T. (2010). How do forced-choice dilemmas affect multiracial people? The role of identity autonomy and public regard in depressive symptoms. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40, 1657–1677. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00634.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez, D. T., Shih, M., & Garcia, J. A. (2009). Juggling multiple racial identities: Malleable racial identification and psychological well-being. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014373

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shih, M. J., & Sanchez, D. T. (2005). Perspectives and research on the positive and negative implications of having multiple racial identities. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 569–591.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki-Crumly, J., & Hyers, L. (2004). The relationship among ethnic identity, psychological well-being, and intergroup competence: An investigation of two biracial groups. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 10(2), 137–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry, R. L., & Winston, C. E. (2010). Personality characteristic adaptations: Multiracial adolescents’ patterns of racial self-identification change. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 432–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, S. S. M., Markus, H. R., & Bergsieker, H. B. (2009). My choice, your categories: The denial of multiracial identities. Journal of Social Issues, 65(1), 185–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Alfaro, E. C., Bámaca, M. Y., & Guimond, A. B. (2009). The central role of familial ethnic socialization in Latino adolescents’ cultural orientation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 46–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00579.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vidourek, R., & King, K. A. (2013). Parent, teacher, and school factors associated with over-the-counter drug use among multiracial youth. American Journal of Health Education, 44, 306–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2013.838889

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whaley, A. L., & Francis, K. (2016). Behavioral health in multiracial adolescents: The role of Hispanic/Latino ethnicity. Public Health Reports, 121, 169–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. M. F. (2015). When gray matters more than Black or White: The schooling experiences of Black-White biracial students. Education and Urban Society, 45, 175–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zapolski, T. C. B., Fisher, S., Banks, D. E., Hensel, D. J., & Barnes-Najor, J. (2016). Examining the protective effect of ethnic identity on drug attitudes and use among a diverse youth population. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0605-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Human Development and Family Studies, University of Connecticut, Stamford, CT, USA

    Annamaria Csizmadia

  2. Clinical Mental Health Counseling, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, CT, USA

    Susan White

Authors
  1. Annamaria Csizmadia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Susan White
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Annamaria Csizmadia .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA, USA

    Roudi Nazarinia Roy

  2. Child and Family Development Program School of Human Services, Harmon College of Business and Professional Studies, University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg, MO, USA

    Alethea Rollins

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Csizmadia, A., White, S. (2019). Racial Identity: Choices, Context, and Consequences. In: Nazarinia Roy, R., Rollins, A. (eds) Biracial Families. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96160-6_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96160-6_11

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-96159-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-96160-6

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation