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Zionist “Buy National” Campaigns in Interwar Palestine

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Boycotts Past and Present

Part of the book series: Palgrave Critical Studies of Antisemitism and Racism ((PCSAR))

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Abstract

This chapter investigates the conditions in which a “buy national” campaign turns from a positive campaign for “our” prosperity into a negative one against “theirs,” that is, boycott. It uses the Zionist “buy national” campaigns in interwar Palestine as a case in point. It explores the possible villains these campaigns could single out: the British imperial power, the rival Arab-Palestinian nationalist movement, and after 1933, Nazi Germany. Although Zionist “buy national” campaigns seldom called on consumers to boycott the products of a particular group, their intensity was directly linked to the intensity of the ethnonational conflict over Palestine and the immediate presence of a rival nationalist movement.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Frank Trentmann, Free Trade Nation: Commerce, Consumption and Civil Society in Modern Britain (Oxford, 2008).

  2. 2.

    David Levi-Faur, ‘Economic Nationalism: From Friedrich List to Robert Reich,’ Review of International Studies, vol. 23, (1997): 359–370 (see p. 360); Ivan T. Berend, ‘The Failure of Economic Nationalism: Central and Eastern Europe before World War I,’ Revue économique, vol. 51, no. 2, (2000), 315–22; Catherine Albrecht, ‘The Rhetoric of Economic Nationalism in the Bohemian Boycott Campaigns of the Late Habsburg Monarchy,’ Austrian History Yearbook, vol. 32, (2001), 47–67; Elizabeth A. Drummond, “‘To Each His Own’: Marketplace Nationalism in the German-Polish Borderland of Poznania at the Turn of the Century,” a paper presented in “boycotts—past and present” conference, London, June 2013. I would like to thank Elizabeth Drummond for sharing this unpublished work.

  3. 3.

    Henryk Szlajfer, ed., Economic Nationalism in East-Central Europe and South America, 1918–1939 (Geneva, 1990); J. Kofman, Economic Nationalism and Development: Central and Eastern Europe between the Two World Wars (Boulder, 1997). On interwar interventionism, see J. M. Keynes, “National Self-Sufficiency,” The Yale Review, vol. 22, (1933), 755–769.

  4. 4.

    See, in brief: Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption (London and New York, 1996 [1979]); Arjun Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge, 1986); Roberta Sassatelli, Consumer Culture: History, Theory and Politics (London, 2007). See also Martin Daunton and Mathew Hilton, eds., The Politics of Consumption: Material Culture and Citizenship in Europe and America (Oxford and New York, 2001).

  5. 5.

    Nancy Reynolds, A City Consumed: Urban Commerce, the Cairo Fire, and the Politics of Decolonization in Egypt (Stanford, 2012), 80. See also: Stephen Constantine, ‘The Buy British Campaign of 1931,’ European Journal of Marketing, vol. 21, no. 4, (1993), 44–59; Dana Frank, Buy American: The Untold Story of Economic Nationalism (Boston, 1999); Karl Gerth, China Made: Consumer Culture and the Creation of the Nation (Cambridge, MA, 2003).

  6. 6.

    Michael Billig, Banal Nationalism (London, 1995), 78.

  7. 7.

    Abdelazziz EzzelArab, European Control and Egyptian Traditional Elite—A Case Study in Elite Economic Nationalism (Lewiston, 2002); Manali Chakrabarti, ‘Why Did Indian Big Business Pursue a Policy of Economic Nationalism in the Interwar Years? A New Window to an Old Debate,’ Modern Asian Studies, vol. 43, no. 4, (2009), 979–1038.

  8. 8.

    Hizky Shoham, ‘‘Buy Local’ or ‘Buy Jewish’? Separatist Consumption in Interwar Palestine,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 45, no. 3, (2013), 469–489.

  9. 9.

    Elizabeth B. Frierson, ‘Cheap and Easy: The Creation of Consumer Culture in Late Ottoman Society,’ in: Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922: An Introduction, ed. Donald Quataert, (Albany, 2000), 246; Michelle Campos, Ottoman Brothers: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Early Twentieth-century Palestine (Stanford, 2011), 100–108.

  10. 10.

    Andrea Stanton, “‘Palestinians Invade the Lebanon’: Mandate-Era Tourism and National Branding,” conference paper, MESA 2009, Boston.

  11. 11.

    Elizabeth Thompson, Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privileges and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon (New York, 2000), 175–183; Mona Russell, Creating the New Egyptian Woman: Consumerism, Education, and National Identity, 1963–1922 (New York, 2004), 73–77; Relli Shechter, “The Cultural Economy of Development in Egypt: Economic Nationalism, Hidden Economy and the Emergence of Mass Consumer Society during Sadat’s Infitah,” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 44, no. 4, (2008), 571–583; Nancy Reynolds, ‘National Socks and the ‘Nylon Woman’: Materiality, Gender, and Nationalism in Textile Marketing in Semicolonial Egypt, 1930–1956,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 43, no. 1, (2011), 49–74; idem, A City Consumed.

  12. 12.

    See esp. Anat Helman, Young Tel Aviv: A Tale of Two Cities, trans. Haim Watzman (Waltham, 2010).

  13. 13.

    Deborah Bernstein and Badi Hasisi, ‘‘Buy and Promote the National Cause’: Consumption, Class Formation and Nationalism in Mandate Palestine Society,’ Nations and Nationalism, vol. 14, no. 1, (2008), 127–50; Sherene Seikaly, “Meatless Days: Consumption and Capitalism in Wartime Palestine 1939–1948” (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2007); idem, ‘Arab Businessmen Challenge the 1940s Status Quo,’ Mediterraneans, vol. 14, (2010), 85–92.

  14. 14.

    “Lizroʿa, lintoʿa, u-livnot” (To sow, plant, and build), Hazefirah, August 11, 1920, p. 2; Menahem Aldubi, ‘Totseret ha-Arets’ (The products of the land), Kuntres, vol. 139 (August 20, 1923), 19–20.

  15. 15.

    Galya Hasharoni, “Shinayim totavot, shokolad ve-itriyot: ha-taʿasiyah ha-ʿivrit ba-ʿasor ha-rishon la-mandat 1919–1929—Hebetim Hevratiyim ve-Kakaliyim” (False teeth, chocolate, and noodles: Hebrew industry in the first decade of British Mandate, 1919–1929—economic and social aspects) (master’s thesis, Haifa University, 2008), 109.

  16. 16.

    Batsheva Margalit Stern, “Imahot ba-hazit: ha-maʿavak lemaʿan totseret ha-arets ve-ha-ʿimmut bein interesim migdariyim le-interesim le’ummiyim” (Mothers at the front: The struggle for local products and the conflict between gender and nationalist interests), Israel, vol. 11, (2007), 91–120.

  17. 17.

    Anita Shapira, Ha-ma’avak Ha-nikhzav: Avoda Ivrit 1929–1939 (Futile Struggle: The Jewish Labor Controversy) (Tel Aviv, 1977).

  18. 18.

    Anita Shapira, ‘Kuvlanato shel shternhal’ [Shternhel’s complaint]. Iyunim Bitkumat Israel, vol. 6 (1996), 553–567; Ze’ev Shṭernhel, The Founding Myths of Israel: Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State, trans. David Maisel (Princeton, 1998).

  19. 19.

    For example, Barbara J. Smith, The Roots of Separatism in Palestine: British Economic Policy 1920–1929 (Syracuse, 1993), 135–159; Zachary Lockman, Comrades and Enemies: Arab and Jewish Workers in Palestine, 1906–1948 (Berkeley, 1996); Deborah S. Bernstein, ‘Expanding the split labor market theory: between and within sectors of the split labor market of Mandatory Palestine,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 38, no. 2, (1996), 243–266; Idem., Constructing Boundaries: Jewish and Arab Workers in Mandatory Palestine (Albany, 2000).

  20. 20.

    Oz Almog, The Sabra: the Creation of the New Jew, trans. Haim Watzman (Berkeley, 2000), 209–225; Seikaly, Meatless Days, 97–164.

  21. 21.

    Helman, Young Tel Aviv. Compare: Victoria De Grazia with Ellen Furlough (eds.), The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996); Mary Louise Roberts, ‘Gender, Consumption, and Commodity Culture,’ American Historical Review, vol. 103, (1998), 817–844; Lisa Tiersten, Marianne in the Market: Envisioning Consumer Society in Fin-de-Siècle France (Berkeley, 2001); Matthew Hilton, ‘The Female Consumer and the Politics of Consumption in Twentieth-Century Britain,’ The Historical Journal, vol. 45, no. 1, (2002), 103–128.

  22. 22.

    Shapira, Ha-ma’avak Ha-nikhzav, 232.

  23. 23.

    Cf. Frank, Buy American, 61–64.

  24. 24.

    For example, Dan Horowitz and Moshe Lissak, Origins of the Israeli Polity: Palestine under the Mandate (Chicago, 1978).

  25. 25.

    Arie Krampf, ‘Reception of the Developmental Approach in the Jewish Economic Discourse of Mandatory Palestine, 1934–1938,’ Israel Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, (2010), 80–103.

  26. 26.

    Anat Helman, ‘European Jews in the Levant Heat: Climate and Culture in 1920s and 1930s Tel Aviv,’ Journal of Israeli History, vol. 22, no. 1, (2003), 71–90, esp. 79.

  27. 27.

    Anita Shapira, Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948, trans. William Templer (New York, 1992); Boaz Neumann, Territory and Desire in Early Zionism (Waltham, 2011).

  28. 28.

    The Council for Domestic Products, Tel Aviv, to Tishby, the Zionist Executive, Jerusalem, December 20, 1923; the Palestine Commercial Agency to the Jewish National Fund, March 11, 1928, Central Zionist Archives (hereafter CZA) KKL5/2447; “Iggud lemaʿan totseret ha-arets: Takanon” (Union for Jewish Products: Regulations), undated, CZA S54/165.

  29. 29.

    See: Yael Zerubavel, Recovered Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli National Tradition (Chicago, 1995), 20–28; Anita Shapira, ‘The Origins of the Myth of the ‘New Jew’: The Zionist Variety,’ Studies in Contemporary Jewry, vol. XIII, (1997), 253–268; Hizky Shoham, Carnival in Tel-Aviv: Purim and the Celebration of Urban Zionism (Boston, 2014), 122–130.

  30. 30.

    Ian M. Drummond, British Economic Policy and the Empire, 1919–1939 (London, 1972), 17–25.

  31. 31.

    On the Egyptian boycott, see Shechter, “The Cultural Economy of Development”; Reynolds, “National Socks,” 52; idem, A City Consumed, 78–113, esp. p. 84.

  32. 32.

    Barbara J. Smith, The Roots of Separatism in Palestine: British Economic Policy 1920–1929 (Syracuse, 1993), 20–25; Hasharoni, “Shinayim totavot,” 115.

  33. 33.

    Shertok (Jewish Agency) to the Merkaz, February 1, 1937, CZA S54/165; see also the Merkaz to the Jewish Agency, January 3, 1936, S25/7317/2.

  34. 34.

    A Survey of Palestine, 3 vols. (Jerusalem, 1946), 2: 373, 3: 570; Dan Giladi, Ha-Yishuv bi-tekufat ha-ʿaliyah ha-reviʿit (1924–1929): Behinah kalkalit u-folitit (The Yishuv during the Fourth Aliya [1924–1929]: A political-economic study) (Tel Aviv, 1973), 24–35; Smith, The Roots of Separatism, 167–81; Jacob Metzer, The Divided Economy of Mandatory Palestine (Cambridge, 1998), 117–137, 145–175, 167–168; Nahum Gross, Lo ʿal ha-ruaḥ levadah: ʿIyyunim ba-historiyah ha-kalkalit shel eretz yisraʾel ba-ʿet ha-hadashah (Not by the spirit alone: studies in the economic history of modern Palestine) (Jerusalem, 2000), 383; Seikaly, Meatless Days; idem, “Arab Businessmen Challenge,” 91; Gershon Shafir, ‘Capitalist Binationalism in Mandatory Palestine,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 43, (2011), 611–633. See also the Iggud Lemaʿan Totseret ha-Arets to the Jewish Agency, May 7, 1940, supplement C, CZA J1/4461.

  35. 35.

    Survey of Palestine, 3: 570. They did this, for example, when calculating the yearly quota of Jewish immigration certificates. See Aviva Halamish, ‘Eretz Yisraʾel ha-mandatorit: hevrah duʾalit o metsiʾut koloniʾalit?’ (Mandatory Palestine: dual society or colonial reality?), Zemanim, vol. 92, (2005): 1–25.

  36. 36.

    Smith, The Roots of Separatism, 160–181.

  37. 37.

    Marcella Simoni, ‘At the Roots of Division: A New Perspective on Arabs and Jews, 1930–39,’ Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 36, no. 3 (2000), 52–92; Smith, The Roots of Separatism; Metzer, The Divided Economy, 23.

  38. 38.

    Dr. Pinhas Rotenstreich to the Jewish Agency Executive, December 30, 1936, CZA S54/166.

  39. 39.

    The secretary of the Political Department of the Jewish Agency (Chaim Arlosoroff) to the Palestine Association of Citrus Growers, February 28, 1933, CZA 156/181.

  40. 40.

    A report about shoes imported to Palestine, submitted to the standing committee for commerce and industry, April 21, 1929; “Tenuʿat ihud bein ha-yatzranim ha-yehudim ve-ha-ʿaravim” (Union of Jewish and Arab manufacturers), undated [October 1930], CZA S25/7317a.

  41. 41.

    Colonel Kisch to the Political Department of the Jewish Agency, December 9, 1930, CZA S25/7317/2; Tishby to the Executive, December 12, 1930, CZA S25/7317/2.

  42. 42.

    Zachary Lockman, ‘Arab Workers and Arab Nationalism in Palestine: A View from Below,’ in: Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East, ed. James Jankowski and Israel Gershoni, (Cambridge, 1997), 249–272; Mahmoud Yazbak, ‘From Poverty to Revolt: Economic Factors in the Outbreak of the 1936 Rebellion in Palestine,’ Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 36, no. 3, (2000), 93–113.

  43. 43.

    Bar-Kokhba Meirovitch to Eliezer Kaplan, November 26, 1935, CZA S9/1521; Shapira, Ha-ma’avak Ha-nikhzav, 231–233; Yitzhak Livni, Ha-maʾavak she-nishkah: ha-iggud lemaʿan totseret ha-arets: ha-mahlakah ha-haklaʾit 1936–1949 (The forgotten struggle: The union for the products of the land: the agriculture department, 1936–1949) (Netanya, 1990), 5–11.

  44. 44.

    Ibid., 20–22; Nahum Karlinsky, California Dreamers: Ideology, Society and Technology in the Citrus Industry in Palestine, 1890–1939, trans. Naftali Greenwood (Albany, 2005), 44.

  45. 45.

    Minutes of the meeting of the secretaries of the Iggudim Lemaʾan Totseret ha-Arets with the Merkaz Lemaʾan Totseret ha-Arets, 31 May 1936, p. 1, CZA S9/1521.

  46. 46.

    Decisions of the Economic Committee, June 1, 1936, Tel Aviv Municipal Archive (hereafter TAMA) 04-3041.

  47. 47.

    Decisions of the Economic Committee, July 21, 1936, TAMA 04-3041.

  48. 48.

    Decisions of the economic committee, June 7, 1936, TAMA 04-3041.

  49. 49.

    Stern, “Imahot ba-hazit,” 105.

  50. 50.

    Dr. Rotenstreich to the Jewish Agency Executive, December 30, 1936, and a handwritten notation by Dr. Santor there, CZA S54-165; the Merkaz to Eliezer Kaplan, January 3, 1937, CZA S25/7317a; Rotenstreich to Shertok, January 29, 1937, CZA S54/165; Shohat-Kaduri law firm, Tel Aviv, to Bernard Joseph, Jerusalem, January 31, 1937, CZA S25/7317/2.

  51. 51.

    For example, the Economic Committee of the Tel Aviv Municipality to the Institute for the Examination of Materials, the Chemists’ Association, Strauss House, September 9, 1936, TAMA, file 4-3041.

  52. 52.

    Shoham, Carnival in Tel Aviv, 131–137.

  53. 53.

    “Shema, Hitler” (Hear O Hitler), Doar Hayom, March 27, 1933, p. 1.

  54. 54.

    On Egypt, see: “Sheikh alfaruq mashmi’a divrey hokhma vedo’eg” (Sheikh Alfaruq speaks wisely and is worried), Doar Hayom, April 4, 1933, p. 1.

  55. 55.

    “Transfer EY-Lita” (Transfer Palestine-Lithuania), Davar, April 22, 1936, p. 3.

  56. 56.

    Aviva Halamish, Be-merotz kaful neged ha-zeman (A double race against time: Zionist immigration policy during the 1930s) (Jerusalem, 2006).

  57. 57.

    The literature on the Ha’avara agreement is vast. See: Yoav Gelber, Moledet hadashah: Aliyat yehudey merkaz eiropa uklitatam 1933–1948 (A new homeland: The Jewish immigration from Central Europe and its absorption 1933–1948) (Jerusalem, 1990), 23–40, 78–92; Yfaat Weiss, ‘The Transfer Agreement and the Boycott Movement: A Jewish Dilemma on the Eve of the Holocaust,’ Yad Vashem Studies, vol. 26 (1998), 129–171; Hava Eshkoli-Wagman, ‘Yishuv Zionism: Its Attitude to Nazism and the Third Reich Reconsidered,’ Modern Judaism, vol. 19, no. 1, (1999), 21–40 (see 26–31).

  58. 58.

    “Sakhar Eretz-Israel-Germania” [Trade between Palestine and Germany], Davar, March 31, 1933, p. 2.

  59. 59.

    Iggud Lema’an Totseret ha-arets to the Haavara Office, Tel Aviv, August 6, 1939; D. Knopf (the Jewish Agency representative in the Haavara Office) to the Commerce Department of the Jewish Agency, August 14, 1939, CZA S8/385/1.

  60. 60.

    For example, Eshkoli-Wagman, “Yishuv Zionism,” 29.

  61. 61.

    When the war broke out, the British expelled most of them from Palestine and confiscated their land and property. See Helmut Glenk, From Desert Sands to Golden Oranges: The History of the German Templer Settlement of Sarona in Palestine 1871–1947 (Victoria, 2005), 197–200.

  62. 62.

    “Matsav shuk he-halav be-Tel Aviv” (The Tel Aviv dairy market), Yehiel Halevi to Meir Dizengoff, December 11, 1935, TAMA 04-3041.

  63. 63.

    W. Santor to Ben-Gurion, March 31, 1936, CZA S54/166.

  64. 64.

    Gelber, Moledet hadashah, 29.

  65. 65.

    Ha’avara Office, Tel Aviv, to Dr. Pinhas Rotenstreich, April 3, 1936, CZA S54/166.

  66. 66.

    “Ha’avara bishnat 1937” [the Haavara in 1937], Davar, January 5, 1938, p. 4.

  67. 67.

    “Duah rishmi al export hahadarim” [Official report on citrus exports], Davar, July 22, 1936, p. 3; “Hapardesanut” [Citrus-growing], Davar, September 5, 1937, p. 17; “Sikkuyim tovim lifri hehadar” [Good prospects for citrus], Davar, October 13, 1938, p. 6.

  68. 68.

    Shoham, “Buy Local or Buy Jewish,” 480–482.

  69. 69.

    The Yitzhar factory to Dr. Rotenstreich, the Jewish Agency, December 23, 1935, CZA S54/165; minutes of the meeting of representatives of workers and industrialists regarding local products, January 27, 1927; Karlinsky, California Dreamers, 113–115; Shafir, “Capitalist Binationalism.”

  70. 70.

    Shapira, Ha-ma’avak Ha-nikhzav; minutes of the meeting between the Merkaz Lemaʿan Totseret ha-Arets and the Iggud Lemaʿan Totseret ha-Arets, April 2, 1936, p. 2, CZA S9/1521.

  71. 71.

    The Greengrocers’ Association to the Mayor of Tel Aviv, January 8, 1930, TAMA 04-3040.

  72. 72.

    Rotenstreich to the Merkaz, January 19, 1937; reply, January 21, 1937, CZA S54/165.

  73. 73.

    “Zikhron devarim me-ha-pegishah she-hitkaymah ba-sokhnut ha-yehudit be-Yom 7.6.1937” (Minutes of the meeting at the Jewish Agency on June 7, 1937), CZA S54/165.

  74. 74.

    Appadurai, The Social Life of Things, 13.

  75. 75.

    Decisions of the Economic Committee, June 17, 1936, TAMA 04-3041.

  76. 76.

    Minutes of the Committee to Examine Local Products, June 16, 1936, CZA S54/165.

  77. 77.

    The Manufacturers’ Association of Israel currently requires that at least 35% of a product’s value be produced in Israel in order for it to be labeled “made in Israel.” See http://www.industry.org.il/?CategoryID=1821 (accessed 13 November 2014).

  78. 78.

    Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York, 1966).

  79. 79.

    Minutes of the meeting between the secretaries of the Iggudim Lemaʿan Totseret ha-Arets and the Merkaz, May 31, 1936, p. 1.

  80. 80.

    “Sekirah ʿal ha-bikkur bi-Yerushalayim” (report on the visit to Jerusalem), by members Ben-David and Lipson, October 10, 1937, p. 1, CZA S54-165.

  81. 81.

    Livni, Ha-maʾavak she-nishkah, 7–9, 17.

  82. 82.

    Shapira, Land and Power, 83–126; Dafna Hirsch, ‘‘We Are Here to Bring the West, Not Only to Ourselves’: Zionist Occidentalism and the Discourse of Hygiene in Mandate Palestine,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 41, (2009), 577–594; Shoham, “Buy Local or Buy Jewish.”

  83. 83.

    Hillel Cohen, Year Zero of the Arab-Israeli Conflict 1929, trans. Haim Watzman (Hannover, 2015).

  84. 84.

    Metzer, The Divided Economy, 167–171; From Mayor Bloch to deputy mayor Israel Rokach, 29 August 1929; Anonymous memorandum to Dizengoff, 24 October 1929—TAMA 04-3040. The same held true for the Arab side. See: Bernstein and Hasisi, Buy and Promote the National Cause.

  85. 85.

    See supra note 41, and Shapira, Ha-ma’avak ha-nikhzav, 58, and n. 27 in p. 360.

  86. 86.

    Yazbak, “From Poverty to Revolt.”

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

    Hizky Shoham

  2. The Shalom Hartman Institute in Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Hizky Shoham

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  1. Department of History, Classics & Archaeology, Birkbeck College – University of London, London, UK

    David Feldman

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Shoham, H. (2019). Zionist “Buy National” Campaigns in Interwar Palestine. In: Feldman, D. (eds) Boycotts Past and Present. Palgrave Critical Studies of Antisemitism and Racism. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94872-0_5

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