Abstract
This book chapter offers a systematic review of sociological research in Russia on the relationship between ethnicity and educational inequality between 1980 and 2016. Five major research perspectives are identified: (1) languages of school education; (2) school quality and ethnic background; (3) socio-cultural differences and education; (4) problems of migrants and receiving society and (5) students’ inter-ethnic relations, with research on ‘school quality and ethnic background’ and ‘problems of migrants and receiving society’ being the most dominant research traditions. Most of the research conducted in Russia employs a quantitative and critical, positivistic approaches and focuses on the educational problems various ethnic minority indigenous populations are encountering. Migration streams from former republics of the USSR are generally considered a new and hence, less researched problem for Russia. This body of research is written mainly in Russian and developed by sociologists in a context characterized by collaboration between the research community and the government in conducting policy relevant research in relationship to the challenges experienced by ethnic minorities and migrants in Russia. This research is carried out in the post-Soviet context that is characterized by the situational dynamics – from phases of so called “parade of sovereignties” with growing demands for cultural autonomy of various sub-national regions and ethnic minority groups to the stage of more centralized model of ethno-linguistic regime in educational domains.
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Notes
- 1.
The projects are executed by the researchers of Institute of Sociology of Russian Academy of Sciences in collaboration with colleagues from the Tatarstan republic Research areas include: the practices of education in national languages, the state of education in the national language in the evaluation of teachers and students, the formation of ethnic identity and interethnic relations in national schools, values and career ambitions of learners, and the availability of universities for them. Methodologies include: a questionnaire survey of learners (n = 609 graduates in 2002 and n = 490 in 2006), participant observations on exams, structured interviews with learners, expert interviews with teachers, information gathering from the class registers, analysis of reports from government agencies and press. The projects are supported by the Ford Foundation and the Russian Humanitarian Foundation.
- 2.
The projects were executed in 1997–1998 by the researchers of Institute of Sociology of Russian Academy of Sciences in collaboration with colleagues from Tatarstan, Sakha (Yakutia), Orenburg, and Magadan regions. Research areas were: the interaction between ethnic groups, the role of the mother language, social inequality of the ethnic groups in conditions of Russian reforms (access to participation in the government and to the property). The sample is multi-stage in the main types of urban and rural settlements. The aggregate sample consists of 100 observation units in each republic and region. The project is supported by the MacArthur Foundation.
- 3.
The projects are executed by the researchers of Institute of Sociology of Russian Academy of Sciences in collaboration with colleagues from various republics and regions of the Russian Federation. The project realized during 1999–2002 was directed by L. Drobizheva. The project realized during 2007–2008 was directed by L. Drobizheva, M. Chernish, A. Bravin, and E. Yakovleva. The described aim of the research is to reveal the real state of ethnic inequality and the role of myths in its perception. The parameters of the representative sample have been developed for the main nationalities in republics and regions. In the surveys of 1999–2002 1050 respondents in Sakha (Yakutia) were interviewed, 1000 in Tatarstan, 1317 in Bashkortostan, and 1160 in the Orenburg region. In the survey of 2007–2008, 1328 people were interviewed in Sakha (Yakutia). Both qualitative (survey) and quantitative (interview) methods were used.
- 4.
The study was conducted in 2005 under the guidance of V. Shapiro. Research areas were: ethnic identity and stereotypes among pupils representing ethnic majorities and minorities; their involvement in interethnic relations and cooperation in the multi-ethnic metropolis. The sample comprised 2455 learners in Grades 8–11 from the 39 secondary schools in Moscow (including ethnic Russians, Azerbaijanis, Armenians, Georgians, Jews, Koreans, and Tatars). Subjects responded to a questionnaire titled ‘You, Your Nation and Other Nations’ containing 166 questions. The study was supported by the Department of Education and the Committee of Interregional Relations and National Policy of Moscow.
- 5.
The results of the survey carried out in St Petersburg schools, spring 2010, are published. The head of research was D. Aleksandrov (National Research University, Higher School of Economics). Research areas were: the issues of ethnic and social differentiation among schools, parents’ interaction with schools, teachers’ attitudes to migrant minority students, and ethnic effects in communication among students. The sample comprised 104 schools from all 18 districts of St Petersburg. Researchers surveyed 419 classes (Grades 8–10 covering all students in the grade), resulting in the collection of 7380 student questionnaires. The sample is fully representative for schools with a standard curriculum. Also more than 150 interviews with migrant students, migrant parents, teachers and school administrators were performed. The total sample includes about 10% ethnic migrants. The largest migrant minority groups are Azerbaijani (26% of the entire population of ethnic minorities) and Armenians (18%); Central Asian ethnic groups account for 14%, North Caucasians for 12%, and Georgians for 8%.
- 6.
The ‘Students in the Multi-National Megalopolises and Large Cities of Russia: Ethnic Self-Consciousness and Inter-Ethnic Relations’ study was conducted by the sociological center of the Russian Academy of Public Administration in 2008. The survey was conducted among 3750 students in five Russian cities: Moscow, St Petersburg, Voronezh, Stavropol, and Orenburg. The survey involved 35 higher education institutions, including both traditional universities and regional branch institutions. The average age of respondentswas20 years. The main research areas were: ethnic consciousness for students and levels of ethnic and religious tolerance.
- 7.
The ‘Level of Ethnic Tolerance Among the Students of PFUR’ study was conducted in 2007–2008 by the sociological laboratory of Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia. A questionnaire survey was implemented. A multi-stage sample proportional to the faculty, the academic year, and national status of a student (citizen of Russia, CIS, or foreign countries) was prepared (n = 400), representing 3.5% of the sampled population.
- 8.
For example, on 11 April 2012 the annual conference at the Institute of Sociology, Russian Academy of Sciences was held under the title ‘Social Realities of Contemporary Russia’. At the first session under the theme ‘Interethnic Relations and Civil Identity in the Post-reform Russia’ the head of the Department of Interethnic Relations of the Russian Ministry of Regional Development, A.V. Zhuravskiy, presented his report and took part in the general discussion.
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Drobizheva, L.M., Konstantinovskiy, D.L., Mukharyamova, L.M., Mukharyamov, N.M. (2019). Russia: Ethnic Differentiation in Education in a Context of Debates on Cultural Diversity, Autonomy, Cultural Homogeneity and Centralization. In: Stevens, P.A.J., Dworkin, A.G. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Race and Ethnic Inequalities in Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94724-2_21
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