Abstract
There is no clearly defined concept of consumer (co-)ownership of renewable energy sources (RES) in the Electricity Act of 2003. However, to promote RE both federal and state governments provide facilitative measures through schemes, incentives, etc. for consumer (co-)ownership at a varying level. In rural areas, decentralized off-grid RE installations are implemented, most of which are triggered by social policies and are project based, with public financial support be it from the government or donor agencies. In 2011 the Solar Energy Corporation of India was established with the target of generating 20,000 MW power and connecting it to the grid by 2022, which also includes support to solar rooftop PV systems. However, as the RE sector is dominated by the interests of commercial actors, there seems to be little space for policies supporting individual consumer (co-)ownership in RE except for “captive power generation plants” (CGP) for self-consumption for commercial or industrial use. CGPs can be set up by a registered cooperative or an association. Depending on how the consumer is defined, for example in captive power generation for commercial use, in community projects in villages, or simply as individual users, and on the choice of RES and location, there is a wide variation of forms of RE consumer (co-)ownership promoted across India. The concepts vary with regard to the contractual arrangement chosen, for example PPP, business corporations, cooperatives, and trusteeship, and with regard to the involvement of actors like federal government, state government, donor agencies, industries, community and individual citizens. In rural areas, off-grid RES are often built and operated by state as well as donor agencies, with ownership typically shared under the legal form of a cooperative and the responsibility for day-to-day operations and collection of electricity bills, etc. assigned to local institutions.
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- 1.
After liberalization India has also been burdened with increasing coal imports for power generation and demand from the iron and steel industry for coking coal. In 2015, India surpassed China in terms of import of coal (~226 million tons). However, after 2015 the growth in import was reduced to 5 per cent due to facilitative domestic policies (IEA 2015b).
- 2.
All the figures are till December 2017 (MNRE 2017a). The success of off-grid SPV lies in the very nature of socio-economic fabric and power scarcity in India as it provides access especially in rural area to electricity for lighting, ventilation, cooling, charging, irrigation, street lighting, educational institutions and so on.
- 3.
‘Shakti Sthala’ project started in Karnataka. It spans across 13,000 acres spread over five villages. The park development is supported by the Karnataka Solar Power Development Corp. Ltd (KSPDCL) as joint venture between Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Ltd (KREDL) and Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) (ToI 2018).
- 4.
In particular in states like Tamil Nadu with 7614 MW, Maharashtra with 4654 MW, Gujarat with 4038 MW, Rajasthan with 3994 MW, Karnataka with 2869 MW, Andhra Pradesh with 1431 MW and Madhya Pradesh with 2141 MW (CSO 2017)
- 5.
In India, small hydropower plants with capacity of less than 25 MW are considered as renewable (MNRE 2009).
- 6.
A good example is the sugar industry which even has a separate quota of Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) under non-solar RES (Krishnan 2015).
- 7.
A comprehensive review was made by Prayas Energy Group on “Decentralized Renewable Energy Micro-grid in India”; for details see Gambhir et al. (2012).
- 8.
Among others, it stipulates regulatory interventions for the promotion of RES through (1) determination of tariffs; (2) specifying renewable purchase obligation (RPO); (3) facilitating grid connectivity; and (4) promotion of development of the market.
- 9.
Currently pursuant to the ‘Central Electricity Regulatory Commission’s Terms and Conditions for Tariff determination from Renewable Energy Sources Regulations 2017’ for all types of RES.
- 10.
These projects include CGP generating electricity from RES such as small hydro, wind, solar including its integration with combined cycle, biomass, biofuel cogeneration and urban or municipal waste (CEA 2013).
- 11.
For example, in Tamil Nadu grid connectivity of rooftop SPV is restricted to 30 per cent of the distribution transformer capacity on a first-come-first-served basis; the supply given to the grid in this way does not qualify for the REC as it is counted as part of state distribution companies’ RPO (EAI n.d.).
- 12.
Pursuant to the CERC Terms and Conditions for recognition and issuance of Renewable Energy Certificate for Renewable Energy Generation Regulations of 2010 (as amended; last 16 March 2018).
- 13.
Third-party-owned SPV units are categorized in a similar manner based on net and gross metering.
- 14.
In hilly states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and Sikkim the capital subsidy is up to 90 per cent. Rooftop SPV plants can also generate revenue through REC. For availing the REC the SPV has to be of capacity 250kW or more. Each 1 MWh (1000 units) of electricity generated is equivalent to one (1) REC. The REC can be traded on power to fill the obligation of RPO.
- 15.
These states are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, HP, J&K, Lakshadweep and A&N Islands.
- 16.
Information provided by Mr Kishor Kumar Choudhary, principle investigator of the project, on 26 March 2018.
- 17.
The programme was funded as grant-in-aid of INR 89 million (EUR 1,065,238) by the India-Canada Environment Facility with INR 35 million, the MNRE with INR 18 million and Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council with INR 17 million while LEDeG provided administrative support for conception and design worth INR 19 million. The beneficiaries contributed about INR 5.7 million (EUR 68,223) in kind.
- 18.
The operating cost of the diesel generator included i) average consumption of high-speed diesel of about 48,000 litres per year at a cost of about INR 1,638,300 (EUR 19,608), and ii) average annual maintenance cost of about INR 221,500 (EUR 2,651).
- 19.
Colloquial Hindi term used in varied context to represent ‘local’.
- 20.
Accessed from <https://qz.com/1036577/indias-wind-energy-sector-is-a-complete-mess-right-now-thanks-to-the-narendra-modi-government/>, dated 26 March 2018.
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Mishra, S.N., Lowitzsch, J. (2019). Consumer (Co-)Ownership in Renewables in India. In: Lowitzsch, J. (eds) Energy Transition. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93518-8_25
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