Abstract
In this chapter I investigate the influence of perceived justice in a situation of change and how far this extends to the way change is either accepted or resisted during the stages of planning, implementation, and beyond. An initial overview of justice development as a concept and its application to the workplace is followed by an analysis of the causes and effects of justice within the context of change. Consideration is given toward the three key dimensions of justice, consisting of distributive (outcomes or distributions), procedural (how distributions are determined), and interactional (the communication of decision outcomes) and their subdimensions. Justice perceptions influence positive and negative emotions, although negative emotions are normally experienced from an unfair outcome if both the outcome and procedure are perceived to be unjust. Information-uncertainty is discussed along with its impact on forming perceptions of justice and how this can be mitigated by actions of change agents during periods of uncertainty arising from change. The assumptions of this contrast between rational-cognitive and subjective-affective processes in the formation of justice judgments are that affective processes are steeped in subjectivism, and, therefore, a more stable rational model of cognitive justice should be aimed for. However, this may only be achieved if management secures an environment of trust and information-certainty. Uncertainty in change tends to make a more profound contribution to the causes of stress than the change itself but this can be reduced through communication with authorities (interactional justice) and an increased level of control for the individual in that relationship (process control). Closely aligned, anticipatory injustice (those who have an expectation that they may not be treated fairly in a given situation) is also discussed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 267–229). New York: Academic Press.
Ambrose, M. L., & Cropanzano, R. (2003). A longitudinal analysis of organizational fairness: An examination of reactions to tenure and promotion decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(2), 266–275.
Ambrose, M. L., Seabright, M. A., & Schminke, M. (2002). Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational justice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 89, 947–965.
Ball, G. A., Trevino, L. K., & Sims, H. P., Jr. (1994). Just and unjust punishment: Influences on subordinate performance and citizenship. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 299–322.
Barsky, A., & Kaplan, S. A. (2007). If you feel bad, it’s unfair: A quantitative synthesis of affect and organizational justice perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(1), 286–295.
Bell, B. S., Wiechmann, D., & Ryan, A. M. (2006). Consequences of organizational justice expectations in a selection system. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 455–466.
Bies, R. J. (2001). In: Byrne, Z. S., & Cropanzano, R. (2001). The history of organizational justice: The founders speak. In Cropanzano, R. (Ed.), Justice in the workplace: From theory to practice (Vol. 2, pp. 3–26). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Bies, R. J., & Moag, J. F. (1986). Interactional justice: Communication criteria of fairness. In R. J. Lewicki, B. H. Sheppard, & M. H. Bazerman (Eds.), Research on negotiations in organizations (Vol. 1, pp. 43–55). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Bies, R. J., & Tyler, T. T. (1993). The litigation mentality in organizations: A test of alternative psychological explanations. Organization Science, 4(3), 352–366.
Birkinshaw, J., Bresman, H., & Hakanson, L. (2000). Managing the post-acquisition integration process: How the human integration and task integration processes interact to foster value creation. Journal of Management Studies, 37, 395–425.
Bordia, P., Hunt, E., Paulsen, N., Tourish, D., & DiFonzo, N. (2004). Uncertainty during organizational change: Is it all about control? European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 134, 345–365.
Brockner, J., Ackerman, G., Greenberg, J., Gelfand, M. J., Francesco, A. M., Chen, Z. X., et al. (2001). Culture and procedural justice: The influence of power distance on reactions to voice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 300–315.
Brockner, J., & Wiesenfeld, B. M. (1996). An integrative framework for explaining reactions to decisions: Integrative effects of outcomes and procedures. Psychological Bulletin, 120(2), 189–208.
Brookner, J. (1988). The effects of work layoffs on survivors: Research theory and practice. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Bryant, B. K., & Hansen, B. K. (1979). The interpersonal context of success: Differing consequences of independent and dependent success of sharing behavior among boys and girls. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 9, 103–113.
Choi, J. (2008). Event justice perceptions and employees’ reactions: Perceptions of social entity justice as a moderator. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 513–528.
Cobb, A. T., Vest, M., Hills, F., Frey, F. F., & Tamoff, K. (1991). Procedural justice: Source attributions and group effects in performance evaluations. Proceedings, Southern Management Association.
Cobb, A. T., Wooten, K. C., & Folger, R. (1995). Justice in the making: Toward understanding the theory and practice of justice in organizational change and development. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 8, 243–295.
Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E. (2001). The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86, 278–321.
Colquitt, J. A., Conlon, D. E., Wesson, M. J., Porter, C. O. L. H., & Ng, K. Y. (2001). Justice at the millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 425–445.
Conlon, D. E. (1993). Some tests of the self-interest and group value models of procedural justice: Evidence from an organizational appeal procedure. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 1109–1124.
Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. H. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302.
Cropanzano, R., & Folger, R. (1989). Referent cognitions and task decision autonomy: Beyond equity theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 293–299.
Cropanzano, R., & Greenberg, J. (1997). Progress in organizational justice: Tunneling through the maze. In C. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 317–372). New York: Wiley.
Cropanzano, R., Prehar, C. A., & Chen, P. Y. (2002). Using social exchange theory to distinguish procedural justice from interactional justice. Group and Organizational Management, 27, 324–351.
Dailey, R. C., & Kirk, D. J. (1992). Distributive and procedural justice as antecedents of job dissatisfaction and intent to turnover. Human Relations, 45, 305–317.
Deutsch, M. (1975). Equity, equality and need: What determines which value will be used as the basis of distributive justice? Journal of Social Issues, 31, 137–149.
Deutsch, M. (1985). Distributive justice: A social-psychological perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Dirks, K. T., & Ferrin, D. L. (2002). Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 611–628.
Fiorelli, J. S., & Margolis, H. (1993). Managing and understanding large systems change: Guidelines for executives and change agents. Organization Development Journal, 11(3), 1–13.
Folger, R. (1977). Distributive and procedural justice: Combined impact of “voice” and improvement on experienced inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 108–119.
Folger, R., & Cropanzano, R. (1998). Organizational justice and human resource management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Folger, R., & Konovsky, M. A. (1989). Effects of procedural and distributive justice on reactions to pay raise decisions. Academy of Management Journal, 32(1), 115–130.
Folger, R., & Skarlicki, D. P. (1999). Unfairness and resistance to change: Hardship as mistreatment. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(1), 35–50.
Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. L., & Brewer, M. B. (2000). Social exclusion and selective memory: How the need to belong influences memory for social events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 486–496.
Gilliland, S. W. (1993). The perceived fairness of selection systems: An organizational justice perspective. Academy of Management Review, 18, 694–734.
Greenberg, J. (1990). Organizational justice: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Journal of Management, 16, 399–432.
Greenberg, J. (1993). The social side of fairness: Interpersonal and informational classes of organizational justice. In R. Cropanzano (Ed.), Justice in the workplace: Approaching fairness in human resource management (pp. 79–103). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Erlbaum.
Greenberg, J. (1994). Using socially fair treatment to promote acceptance of a work site smoking ban. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 288–297.
Greenberg, J., & Wiethoff, C. (2001). Organizational justice as proaction and reaction: Implications for research and application. In R. Cropanzano (Ed.), Justice in the workplace: From theory to practice (pp. 271–302). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Greenberger, D. B., & Strasser, S. (1986). Development and application of a model of personal control in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 11(1), 164–177.
Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814–834.
Harrison, T. R., Hopeck, P., Desrayaud, N., & Imboden, K. (2013). The relationship between conflict, anticipatory procedural justice, and design with intentions to use ombudsman processes. International Journal of Conflict Management, 24(1), 56–72.
Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior: Its elementary forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Houlden, P., LaTour, S., Walker, S., & Thibaut, J. (1978). Preference for modes of dispute resolution as a function of process and decision control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 13–30.
Jermier, J. M., Knights, D., & Nord, W. (1994). Resistance and power in organizations. London: Routledge.
Kabanoff, B. (1991). Equity, equality, power and conflict. Academy of Management Review, 16, 416–441.
Kagan, J. (1984). The nature of the child. New York: Basic Books.
Kickul, J., Lester, S. W., & Finkl, J. (2002). Promise breaking during radical organizational change: Do justice interventions make a difference? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(Special Issue S1), 469–488.
Kirkman, B. L., Jones, R. G., & Shapiro, D. L. (2000). Why do employees resist teams? Examining the ‘resistance barrier’ to work team effectiveness. International Journal of Conflict Management, 11(1), 74–92.
Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347–480). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Konovsky, M., & Cropanzano, R. (1991). Perceived fairness of employee drug testing as a predictor of employee attitudes and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 698–707.
Konovsky, M. A., & Folger, R. (1991). The effects of procedures, social accounts, and benefits level on victims’ layoff reactions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 630–650.
Korsgaard, M. A., Schweiger, D., & Sapienza, H. (1995). Building commitment, attachment and trust in strategic decision-making teams: The role of procedural justice. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 60–84.
Leventhal, G. S. (1976). The distribution of rewards and resources in groups and organizations. In L. Berkowitz & E. Walster (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 9). New York: Academic Press.
Leventhal, G. S. (1980). What should be done with equity theory? New approaches to the study of fairness in social relationships. In K. J. Gergen, M. S. Greenberg, & R. H. Willis (Eds.), Social exchange, advances in theory and research (pp. 27–55). New York: Plenum.
Liao, H., & Rupp, D. E. (2005). The impact of justice climate and justice orientation on work outcomes: A cross-level multifoci framework. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 242–256.
Lind, E. A., Kanfer, R., & Earley, C. (1990). Voice, control, and procedural justice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 952–959.
Lind, E. A., Kray, L., & Thompson, L. (1998). The social construction of injustice: Fairness judgements in response to own and others’ unfair treatment by authorities. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75, 1–22.
Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. R. (1988). The social psychology of procedural justice. New York: Plenum.
Loi, R., Hang-yue, N., & Foley, S. (2006). Linking employees’ justice perceptions to organizational commitment and intention to leave: The mediating role of perceived organizational support. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79, 101–120.
Lowe, R. H., & Vodanovich, S. J. (1995). A field study of distributive and procedural justice as predictors of satisfaction and organizational commitment. Journal of Business and Psychology, 10, 99–114.
Mannix, E. A., Neale, M. A., & Northcraft, G. B. (1995). Equity, equality or need? The effects of organisational culture on the allocation of benefits and burdens. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 63, 276–286.
Martin, C. L., & Bies, R. J. (1991, August). Just laid off, but still a ‘good citizen’? Only if the process is fair. In D. Eskaw (Ed.), The role of organizational justice in organizational citizenship behaviors. Miami Beach, FL: Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management.
Martocchio, J. J., & Judge, T. A. (1995). When we don’t see eye to eye: Discrepancies between supervisors and subordinates in absence disciplinary decisions. Journal of Management, 21(2), 251–278.
McFarlin, D. B., & Sweeney, P. D. (1992). Distributive and procedural justice as predictors of satisfaction with personal and organizational outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 626–637.
Meindl, J. R. (1989). Managing to be fair: An exploration of values, motives, and leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 34, 252–276.
Meyer, C. B. (2001). Allocation processes in mergers and acquisitions: An organizational justice perspective. British Journal of Management, 12(1), 47–66.
Mishra, A. K., & Spreitzer, G. M. (1998). Explaining how survivors respond to downsizing: The role of trust, empowering, justice, and work redesign. Academy of Management Review, 23, 567–588.
Moorman, R. H. (1991). Relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behaviors: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship? Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 845–855.
Morrison, E. W., & Robinson, S. L. (1997). When employees feel betrayed: A model of how psychological contract violation develops. The Academy of Management Review, 22(1), 226–256.
Mossholder, K. W., Bennet, N., & Martin, C. L. (1998). A multilevel analysis of procedural justice context. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 131–141.
Naumann, S. E., & Bennett, N. (2000). A case for procedural justice climate: Development and test of a multilevel model. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 881–889.
Organ, D. W. (1990). The motivational basis of organizational citizenship behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 12(1), 43–72.
Paterson, J. M., & Cary, J. (2002). Organizational justice, change anxiety, and acceptance of downsizing: Preliminary tests of an AET-based model. Motivation and Emotion, 26(1), 83–103.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1967). Social evaluation theory: Convergence and applications. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 241–315). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Ritter, B. A., Fischbein, R. L., & Lord, R. G. (2005). Implicit and explicit expectations of justice as a function of manager and subordinate race. Human Relations, 58, 1501–1521.
Roberts, K., & Markel, K. S. (2001). Claiming in the name of fairness: Organizational justice and the decision to file for workplace injury compensation. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(4), 332–347.
Rodell, J. B., & Colquitt, J. A. (2009). Looking ahead in times of uncertainty: The role of anticipatory justice in an organizational change context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(4), 989–1002.
Rupp, D. E., & Cropanzano, R. (2002). The mediating effects of social exchange relationships in predicting workplace outcomes from multifoci organizational justice. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 89(1), 925–946.
Salancik, G. R., & Pfeffer, J. (1978). A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 224–253.
Sampson, E. E. (1975). On justice as equality. Journal of Social Issues, 31, 45–64.
Schroth, H. A., & Pradhan Shah, P. (2000). Procedures: Do we really want to know them? An examination of the effects of procedural justice on self-esteem. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 462–471.
Schweiger, D. M., & DeNisi, A. S. (1991). Communication with employees following a merger: A longitudinal field experiment. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 110–135.
Schweiger, D. M., Ivancevich, J. M., & Power, F. R. (1987). Executive actions for managing human resources before and after acquisitions. Academy of Management Executive, 1, 127–137.
Schweiger, D. M., Ridley, J. R., & Martini, D. M. (1992). Creating one from two: The merger between Harris Semiconductor and General Electric Solid State. In S. E. Jackson et al. (Eds.), Diversity in the workplace: Human resource initiatives. New York: The Guildford Press.
Shapiro, E. G. (1975). Effect of expectations of future interaction on reward allocations in dyads: Equity or equality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 873–880.
Shapiro, D. L., & Kirkman, B. L. (1999). Employees’ reaction to the change to work teams: The influence of “anticipatory” injustice. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12, 51–66.
Shore, L. M., & Shore, T. H. (1995). Perceived organizational support and organizational justice. In R. Cropanzano & K. M. Kacmar (Eds.), Organizational politics, justice, and support: Managing social climate at work (pp. 149–164). Westport, CT: Quorum Press.
Simons, T., & Robertson, Q. (2003). Why mangers should care about fairness: The effects of aggregate justice perceptions on organizational outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 432–443.
Skarlicki, D. P., & Latham, G. P. (1996). Increasing citizenship behavior within a labour union: A test of organizational justice theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 161–169.
Snyder, M., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (1978a). Behavioral confirmation in social interaction: From social perception to social reality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 148–162.
Snyder, M., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (1978b). Hypotheses-testing processes in social interaction. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 36, 1202–1212.
Stouffer, S. A., Suchman, E. A., DeVinney, L. C., Star, S. A., & Williams, R. M. (1949). The American soldier: Adjustment during army life (Vol. 1). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Sweeney, P. D., & McFarlin, D. B. (1993). Workers evaluation’ of the “ends” and the “means”: An examination of four models of distributive and procedural justice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55, 23–40.
Tannen, D. (1979). What’s in a frame? Surface evidence of underlying expectations. In R. Freedle (Ed.), New dimensions in discourse processes (pp. 137–181). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Thibaut, J., & Walker, L. (1975). Procedural justice: A psychological analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Turiel, E. (1983). The development of social knowledge: Morality and convention. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Turnley, W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2000). Re-examining the effects of psychological contract violations: Unmet expectations and job dissatisfaction as mediators. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(1), 25–42.
Tyler, T. R. (1990). Why people obey the law: Procedural justice, legitimacy, and compliance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Tyler, T. R. (1994). Psychological models of the justice motive: Antecedents of distributive and procedural justice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 850–863.
Tyler, T. R., & Blader, S. L. (2003). The group engagement model: Procedural justice, social identity, and cooperative behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 349–361.
Tyler, T. R., & De Cremer, D. (2005). Process-based leadership: Fair procedures and reactions to organizational change. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 529–545.
Tyler, T. R., Degoey, P., & Smith, H. (1996). Understanding why the justice of group procedures matters: A test of the psychological dynamics of the group-value model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 913–930.
Tyler, T. R., & Lind, E. A. (1992). A relational model of authority in groups. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 115–292). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Tyler, T. R., Lind, E. A., & Huo, Y. J. (2000). Cultural values and authority relations: The psychology of conflict resolution across cultures. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6, 1138–1163.
Tyler, T. R., Rasinski, K., & Spodick, N. (1985). The influence of voice on satisfaction with leaders: Exploring the meaning of process control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 72–81.
van den Bos, K. (2001). Uncertainty management: The influence of uncertainty salience on reactions to perceived procedural fairness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 931–941.
van den Bos, K. (2003). On the subjective quality of social justice: The role of affect as information in the psychology of justice judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 482–498.
van den Bos, K., Bruins, J., Wilke, H. A. M., & Dronkert, E. (1999). Sometimes unfair procedures have nice aspects: On the psychology of the fair process effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 324–336.
van den Bos, K., & Lind, E. A. (2002). Uncertainty management by means of fairness judgements. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 1–60). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
van den Bos, K., & van Prooijen, J.-W. (2001). Referent cognitions theory: The role of closeness of reference points in the psychology of voice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 616–626.
van Prooijen, J.-W., van den Bos, K., & Wilke, H. A. M. (2004). Group belongingness and procedural justice: Social inclusion and exclusion by peers affects the psychology of voice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 66–79.
van Prooijen, J.-W., van den Bos, K., & Wilke, H. A. M. (2007). Procedural justice in authority relations: The strength of outcome dependence influences people’s reactions to voice. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1286–1297.
Wanberg, C. R., Bunce, L. W., & Gavin, M. B. (1999). Perceived fairness of layoffs among individuals who have been laid off: A longitudinal study. Personnel Psychology, 52, 59–84.
Weiss, H. M., Suckow, K., & Cropanzano, R. (1999). Effects of justice conditions on discrete emotions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 786–794.
Welbourne, T. M., Balkin, D. B., & Gomez-Mejia, L. R. (1995). Gainsharing and mutual monitoring: A combined agency-organizational justice interpretation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 881–899.
Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 748–762.
Wilson, J. Q. (1993). The moral sense. New York: Free Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jackson, N. (2019). Organizational Justice. In: Organizational Justice in Mergers and Acquisitions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92636-0_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92636-0_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-92635-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-92636-0
eBook Packages: Business and ManagementBusiness and Management (R0)