Abstract
The oases of Northern Africa, rich and complex but also fragile, have lasted for centuries and thus demonstrated their longevity. Today, how can we position their future in a context of significant environmental and social change? In order to address the notions of viability and coviability, it is necessary to verify the study’s systemic context. The hypothesis that an oasis system exists has thereby been tested and the analytical inferences discussed. It uses the systemic approach and relies on reasoning by compartmentalization which is useful in the case of complex systems. Through a dual compartment/system vision, it is possible to address the trajectory of the North African oases, presented here as territorial compartments, to discuss their systemic coherence and thus question their future. This work illustrates a generic approach in order to understand the society-environment relationship. It provides the suitable systemic level for governance targeting systemic viability and coviability.
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Notes
- 1.
According to the set theory.
- 2.
Generally speaking, the territorial processes (corresponding to the Functions “Life” and “Organization”) are processing chains operating from all or part of the systemic components listed in the territorial compartment. Accordingly, the more the territorial process (i.e. the processing chain) is in line with the system functioning as a whole, from which it is extracted (i.e. including its regulations, etc.), the less it is submitted to the territorial contingency originating from outside the compartment. The territorial organization will, therefore, be more effective to manage it (and thereby, in its ability, if such is the objective, to drive it to a state close to systemic coherence: viability). In other words: The Function “Territorial organization” grants more or less an efficient capacity to ensure actions and regulation on the process. Conditions of autonomy, at the territorial compartment level, are immediately acquired if the whole processing chain corresponding to the process is contained within the territorial compartment. Otherwise, the internal organization but also extra-compartment factors will more or less contribute too. It is noteworthy that the territorial compartment’s self-organization function, in its ideal and accomplished form, is equivalent to systemic self-regulation.
- 3.
These notes interpret the state of art according to a systemic reading and use the affirmative form.
- 4.
These notes are based on the perceived roughness; they question the coherence and the future and use the interrogative form.
- 5.
It corresponds to a part of global society, noted as society(−part) in Fargette et al. (2019) (Part 1, volume 1), which is associated to a territorial area.
- 6.
In systemics, we refer to the ecosystem of arid zones and its components.
- 7.
Ksar (pl. ksour): fortified village in North Africa.
- 8.
Systemic term: adaptation.
- 9.
In systemics, it would be the system envelope.
- 10.
In some cases, inside this area.
- 11.
The way one organizes oneself contributes to the adaptation to the environment and to the conditions it offers.
- 12.
A vocation typology is an approach by compartment function. It interprets the organization resulting from a federating and dominant function of the compartment.
- 13.
Example of pastoral farmers sheltering on the south slopes of the High Atlas Mountains, Morocco, in the case of a crisis (prolonged drought, famine) with a shift toward sedentary agriculture on the banks of water courses.
- 14.
Where the survivors of the Rosmenide dynasty have retreated (a retreat for religious reasons, Ibadite movement) at the time of the establishment of the Fatimids.
- 15.
This is getting closer to the landscape’s two-dimensional concept (material and intangible dimensions; Dérioz 2012).
- 16.
We are not going to deal here with the process of the development of territorial identity, which would diverge too much from our objective in this paper.
- 17.
We can also say that the access to water induces organizational processes, but also results from such processes, since the relationship with the water is so complex, and elaborated, ... systemic.
- 18.
See in Sect. 29.5 for the contemporary changes observed.
- 19.
While using the systemic vocabulary.
- 20.
The oasis agro-system provides the regulation principles of the society-environment relationship type agriculture.
- 21.
Adjustment of societal modes to the environment conditions; adaptation in systemic vocabulary.
- 22.
In systemic terms, these are feedback loops providing control/regulation and involved in the emergence of systems. The same interactions participate in the viability of the emerged system. In the oasis compartment, the Organization function ensures the sustainability of oasis agriculture through good application of oasis agro-system principles (viable).
- 23.
The production system, the agro-system.
- 24.
When possible, the rainfall regime of the year permitting (e.g. no more than one year in four years in the Tunisian Djerid).
- 25.
Organization allowing the adjustment, adaptation of usage, adaptation of the agro-systemic interaction.
- 26.
Very often but not necessarily including dates.
- 27.
Herds of sheep, goats and, rarely, cattle in the vicinity of the oasis irrigated perimeter.
- 28.
Daily journey, or migratory herding lasting for several days, weeks or even months.
- 29.
Internal flow intensification.
- 30.
This organization process targets the society-environment relationship via the work carried out according to know-how (level 1) but it also requires organization among the actors in the society (level 2): know-how acquired then transmitted through learning, development and adherence to a legal framework.
- 31.
The organization function at a compartment level corresponds to the systemic regulation/adaptation. Developed in society, it contributes to sustainability of each process and, when successful, to the system’s viability.
- 32.
Adaptation.
- 33.
Adaptation, adjustment of societal modes, to the environment conditions.
- 34.
Agronomic interactions (belonging to the systemic register) become agriculture (territorial processes) in the territorial compartment. Conversely, the agro-system is the product of a Society Organization function having achieved (to merit the term system) a strong degree of systemic adaptation/adjustment of society-environment practices. Agriculture can also be seen as a complex version (far from the only “free gift”) of the concept of eco-systemic service (see Fargette et al. 2019, part 1, volume 1). We note that the two functions “ES-agricultural production” and “ES management-agricultural production”, covered by this interpretation are present and operational in an achieved, “ideal” agro-system.
- 35.
Conversely, farming residues, mainly cereal, can complete the livestock feed ration, as can forage grown on agricultural plots of land and/or residue of crops grown on plots of land.
- 36.
Integrated in systemic vocabulary.
- 37.
According to the systemic vocabulary.
- 38.
The public policies facilitated by significant means result in a relative abundance of water.
- 39.
Term used for palm treatment carried out against certain diseases, e.g. the injection of a molecule close to aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), which increases the defense system in young palm trees against the fungus causing the Bayoud disease.
- 40.
- 41.
e.g. extensions with private status at the expense of migrating rangeland herds with a community status (Ben Saad, 2002).
- 42.
e.g. those created illegally in the new perimeters in Tunisia.
- 43.
e.g. the public policies orientations which invest in major agricultural hydraulic equipment; in Morocco with the creation of the ORMVA: Regional offices for agricultural development.
- 44.
Farmers group, CRDA in Tunisia; water sharing, according to the customary laws, by the water official “el ilm”, designated by the “Jemâa”, sort of village community representative, for a 4 months mandate, Dades Valley, Morocco.
- 45.
See the case of the ‘Système Aquifère du Sahara Septentrional’ (SASS), a considerable water reserve but which is not renewable, shared between Algeria, Tunisia and Libya (OSS 2014).
- 46.
Shared funding between the State, PNUD and local authorities for Fam El Hisn Dam, 100 km from Asrir, Morocco (Le Monde 2009).
- 47.
Discussions between the governments of Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya to agree on the objectives of water demand management and of protection of the SASS (OSS 2014).
- 48.
Unless water resource is no longer considered as limited, which would be received as a godsend.
- 49.
http://www.raddo.org/rubrique52.html?lang=fr. RADDO web site: Accueil > Mobilisation de la société civile > Morocco. RADDO topicality, section of Morocco. “Second Regional Workshop on raising awareness about water resources’ situation of the oases environment”.
- 50.
The establishment of phosphate factories and a dozen boreholes has led to a decrease in groundwater and resulted in its pollution.
- 51.
Technical maintenance on the one hand, agreement between actors on the other hand, which, in systemic terms, would be regulation methods.
- 52.
Even if the uses and traditional know-how provide stability and are valued again, not only as intangible heritage of oasis society but also because they are recognized as being useful and effective, systemic stability concedes adaptation which is not synonymous to no change. A mere “backward-looking” conception cannot be justified and would be difficult to hold in a world which crosses other avenues and wishes perhaps to engage in these. By testing possible innovations, such proactiveness is a potential source for adaptation. However, in order that the coherence of the whole remains (via long-lived adaptations) both ancestral and innovative know-how (when some substitute or cohabit with others) must take into account and even reinvent a wealth of coherent relationships.
- 53.
i.e. oriented towards a restructuring of the system thereby allowing its longevity.
- 54.
Of a much larger system, that goes beyond a single territorial compartment.
- 55.
Interactions, systemic flows.
- 56.
It will be adaptive if it brings solutions in the face of the stress/limiting conditions and allows longevity to be maintained.
- 57.
Impact and a posteriori regulation.
- 58.
i.e. the different alternatives to mass tourism.
- 59.
Exerts pressure? Regulates? This all depends on the focus and the level of systemic integration.
- 60.
The nature of needs, thus the kind of resource sought (water, salt, petrol...) has changed throughout time as well as the technologies implemented, the localization of mineral deposits exploited, and their agents and managers.
- 61.
They are considered as pressures when they act on a system while external to it.
- 62.
Which would justify that this whole, the territorial compartment, be considered a system.
- 63.
Slaves in historical times.
- 64.
Trucks which can transport any kind of goods, including migrating herds to be “parachuted” in another region in the case of prolonged drought for example (case of the southern slopes of the High Atlas Mountains, Morocco, CBTHA 2003).
- 65.
The Azalai in the Tamasheq language is the caravan of dromedaries conducted twice a year by the Arabs who travel through the Sahara Desert for nearly 1000 km, practicing transportation and trade of rock salt extracted from mines of Taoudeni in the north of Mali to be sold in Timbuktu and other markets of the Sahel (Wikipedia).
- 66.
If so, this would be regulation in a systemic framework.
- 67.
Which usually fall within “System Earth” (as defined in Fargette et al. 2019 , part 1, volume 1).
- 68.
Adaptation, co-adaptation.
- 69.
Complying with oasis system.
- 70.
Interactions.
- 71.
Control/regulation.
- 72.
Within the set of known interactions and within the overall convergence or shared specificities identified in roles played, the systemic approach looks for the aggregation level and the perimeter delineation with a content coherent enough to be a “system”. From an incomplete vision and by following “systemic reasoning, this concerns “going back” to conceptual notions; there is an analogy with the “Cave allegory”, when Plato suggests the existence of a world outside the cave.
- 73.
Adaptation in systemic vocabulary.
- 74.
Oasis Society (with capital ‘S’), is a geographical object originating from the concept “Oasis Socio-system”; it is distinct from oasis society (with a small ‘s’), a geographical object assigned to the oasis compartment and corresponding to a part of one larger society that still requires strict delineation (and a socio-system that still requires strict identification).
- 75.
That of the oasis socio-system, if it exists.
- 76.
If it is difficult to delineate a society (with respect to its organization), this may be because this organization does not refer to the rationale of a simple socio-system. It may also be due to the fact that it refers to several tendencies, falling within different socio-systemic referentials. Lastly, it may be because the delineation of the corresponding compartment is not consistent. These three reasons are not independent from each other.
- 77.
And of its homologue, the systemic boundary. The dual vision refers to “the compartment perimeter/ the system boundary”: the approach by compartmentalization takes into account the difficulty related to the possible “blurry” delineation of the perimeter: the compartment has a questionable perimeter. However, the more tangible the systemic rationale is, the clearer the perimeter is; if the perimeter is clear, the hypothesis of system existence is quite confirmed. We proceed by “iterative repeated adjustment” in order to increase the accuracy. The systemic approach tests the functional logic of the “compartment” (and thus the system boundary that would correspond to it) by interpreting the flow quantities and what governs them: internal flows (regulation), external flows (pressure). In the case where intensity and diversity of extra-territorial exchanges are strong (external exchange with its environment) it might even seem difficult to “contain” the compartment within the perimeter a priori first delineated. This could question upon the legitimacy of the chosen perimeter, according to whether the compartment thus delimited does or does not own sufficient power of attractiveness (corresponding to an internal rationale) compared to other systemic rationales, expressed by concomitant systemic interactions that take place here at other scales even though they are not or only partly taken into account by the territorial angle.
- 78.
For instance, in the agriculture sector, some political and institutional frameworks are pushing for the development of the sector-based approach (MENA region, Sghaier (2014).
- 79.
This would refer to coviability if the protagonists were systems.
- 80.
Is it adaptation?
- 81.
The previous analysis/discussion helped in determining and commenting the elements that are close to oasis systemic coherence, and, on the contrary, those which question it or question its level of aggregation.
- 82.
Governance, organization and management of services, i.e. the two levels of Function Organization.
- 83.
Adaptation effort.
- 84.
In turn, it could also be considered as a “compartment” in the case of a proven systemic deficiency in its functioning.
- 85.
Tensift Al Haouz – Birth and Maternity in the Hight Atlas (2013), Online video; canal IRD, http://www.ird.fr/la-mediatheque/videos-en-ligne-canal-ird/tensift-al-haouz
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This work was supported by public funds received for GEOSUD, a project (ANR-10-EQPX-20) in the “Investissements d’Avenir” program managed by the French National Research Agency.
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Fargette, M., Loireau, M., Sghaier, M., Raouani, N., Libourel, T. (2019). The Future of Oases in North Africa Through the Prism of a Systemic Approach: Towards Which Type of Viability and Coviability?. In: Barrière, O., et al. Coviability of Social and Ecological Systems: Reconnecting Mankind to the Biosphere in an Era of Global Change. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78111-2_2
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