Socio-Economic and Legal Foundations of Modern China

Martinek, Madeleine

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77616-3_2

Madeleine Martinek²

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Abstract

When the wind changes, some build walls while others build windmills.

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Notes

1.
A proverb that Chinese Premier Li Keqiang used in a keynote speech titled “Uphold Peace and Stability, Advance Structural Reform and Generate New Momentum for Development,” at the World Economic Forum annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland, on January 21, 2015. With this proverb he emphasizes the “need to act along the trend of our time”, that is, to adjust to the challenges by continuing reforms and promoting innovation instead of slackening in legislative and economic endeavors, see China.org.cn. (2015), http://china.org.cn/chinese/2015-01/23/content_34634458.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
2.
Bi (2015), p. 142.
3.
Chen (1996a), p. 13.
4.
Leng (1977), pp. 358–359.
5.
Chen (1999a), p. 41.
6.
Guo (2006), p. 59.
7.
Huang (2012), p. 99; Feng (2017), p. 585.
8.
See also Bi (2015), p. 141.
9.
Vogel (2012), http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/08/opinion/china-changes-leaders-deng-xiaopings-china.html, accessed 20 December 2017.
10.
See Heuser (2005), p. 144. He takes a closer look at the Chinese term “gaige kaifang”.
11.
Vogel (2011), p. 242.
12.
Huang and Zheng (2010), p. 34.
13.
Vogel (2011), pp. 244–245.
14.
See more closely Deng (1984), pp. 151–165.
15.
Vogel (2011), pp. 240–245.
16.
Naughton (2007), pp. 85–86.
17.
Naughton (2007), pp. 86–87; Heilmann (2008), http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/china-spezial/wirtschaft/china-experte-heilmann-im-gespraech-bald-werden-uns-die-chinesen-abhaengen-1663333.html?printPagedArticle=true#pageIndex_2, accessed 20 December 2017.
18.
Naughton (2007), p. 86.
19.
Rawski (1995), p. 1159; Naughton (2007), p. 86.
20.
Naughton (2007), p. 87.
21.
Yuan et al. (2010), pp. 70–71.
22.
The clear objective of achieving a “socialist market economy” was concretized and incorporated into the Chinese Constitution only in 1993, see below, Sect. 2.1.2.
23.
At the 19th National Congress of the CCP held in October 2017, Xi Jinping emphasized that he will continue to open the economy and deepen financial reforms, see Xinhuanet (2017), http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/19cpcnc/2017-10/27/c_1121867529.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
24.
See more closely Chow (2002), pp. 17–18.
25.
Deng (1979), http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/dengxiaoping/103388.htm, accessed 22 December 2017.
26.
Zhang (2006), p. 45.
27.
Chen (1996a), p. 7.
28.
Jung and Qiao (2003), p. 110.
29.
List (2009), p. 54.
30.
See more closely Zeng (2012), http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201203/201210/t20121008_185077.htm, accessed 20 December 2017; Heilmann (2008), http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/china-spezial/wirtschaft/china-experte-heilmann-im-gespraech-bald-werden-uns-die-chinesen-abhaengen-1663333.html?printPagedArticle=true#pageIndex_2, accessed 20 December 2017.
31.
The constitutional amendment of 1993 replaced the words “planned economy on the basis of socialist public ownership” with the words “socialist market economy”.
32.
The constitutional amendment of 1988 entailed the legal possibility of allocation and transfer of land use rights which extended the growing influence of market forces on land use.
33.
The “social market economy” is not mandatory according to the German Constitution but is to be seen as a form of economic order permissible within the scope of the German Constitution (the “Grundgesetz” (GG)). Constitutional rights such as protection of property rights (Article 14 GG), freedom of association (Article 9 GG) and occupational freedom (Article 12 GG) but also the “welfare state principle” enshrined in Art. 20 (1) GG provide the limits for economic policy measures issued by the legislator, see also Heuser and Sprick (2013), p. 24.
34.
Ruhe (2007), p. 140.
35.
Article 15 of the amendment to the Constitution promulgated on March 29, 1993; see also Zeng (2012), http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201203/201210/t20121008_185077.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
36.
Zeng (2012), http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201203/201210/t20121008_185077.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
37.
This expression is used in Zhang and Chang (2016), p. 37.
38.
EU-Asia Institute (2015), http://www.essca.fr/EU-Asia/what-is-market-economy-with-chinese-characteristics/, accessed 10 December 2017. The status of China as a non-market economy in transition was enshrined in section 15 (a) (ii) of China’s accession protocol to the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This allowed other WTO member states to apply a certain methodology in calculating anti-dumping measures against Chinese exports, often resulting in inflated dumping margins. Since the expiry of section 15 (a) (ii) of China’s WTO accession protocol on December 11, 2016, neither the USA nor the EU have recognized China as a market economy, see more closely Listerud (2017), http://thediplomat.com/2017/04/the-us-china-fight-over-trade-the-ultimate-test-of-the-wto-framework/, accessed 20 December 2017; De Kok (2016), pp. 515–518. For a summary of the present state of discussion on China’s market economy status, see Martinek (2017), pp. 203–207.
39.
The CCP Central Committee Resolution concerning Some Major Issues in Comprehensively Deepening Reform (中共中央关于全面深化改革若干重大问题的决定) was passed on 12 November 2013, see more closely Creemers (2013), https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2013/11/15/ccp-central-committee-resolution-concerning-some-major-issues-in-comprehensively-deepening-reform/, accessed 20 December 2017.
40.
Brødsgaard and Grünberg (2014), p. 343. There are private national champions, such as Huawei, a global telecommunications equipment manufacturer, and Alibaba, an online commerce company.
41.
Cf. Wong and Bodeen (2017), http://time.com/4986947/china-congress-xi-jinping-economy-challenges__trashed/, accessed 20 December 2017.
42.
Son (2017), https://thediplomat.com/2017/10/xi-jinping-thought-vs-deng-xiaoping-theory/, accessed 20 December 2017; Wong and Bodeen (2017), http://time.com/4986947/china-congress-xi-jinping-economy-challenges__trashed/, accessed 20 December 2017.
43.
Wong and Bodeen (2017), http://time.com/4986947/china-congress-xi-jinping-economy-challenges__trashed/, accessed 20 December 2017.
44.
See “China nach dem 19. Parteitag der Kommunistischen Partei”, speech delivered by Sebastian Heilmann at the meeting of the German-Chinese Lawyers’ Association on November 24, 2017 in Berlin.
45.
Son (2017), https://thediplomat.com/2017/10/xi-jinping-thought-vs-deng-xiaoping-theory/, accessed 20 December 2017.
46.
Herdegen (2016), pp. 405–406.
47.
Herdegen (2016), p. 406; Wang (2002), p. 48. FDI is to be distinguished from portfolio investments which do not entail active management or control of the issuing company. Instead, overseas institutions invest in equities listed on a nation’s stock exchange.
48.
Guo (2013), p. 250; Lubman (2006), p. 10. Lubman states that between 1949 and 1979 China’s foreign trade was conducted in a legal vacuum.
49.
Chang (1988), p. 190.
50.
Luo and Yin (2012), p. 75.
51.
The FDI-led economic development is the more astonishing when considering China’s negative experiences with foreign countries in the nineteenth and twentieth century which still deeply influence today’s policies towards FDI.
52.
For a detailed description of the major vehicles for foreign investors to do business in China, see Lo and Tian (2005), pp. 58–86.
53.
Wang (2002), p. 66.
54.
Kroymann (2009), p. 35.
55.
The Ministry of Commerce of the PRC published China’s draft Foreign Investment Law (《中华人民共和国外国投资法》(草案征求意见稿)) and solicited public comments thereon.
56.
For more details see Atzler et al. (2015), pp. 252–258.
57.
Chen (1999b), p. 70.
58.
Chen (1999b), p. 70.
59.
Blasek (2012), p. 155.
60.
Blasek (2012), p. 155.
61.
Lubman (2006), p. 33.
62.
Bu (2009), pp. 1–2.
63.
Bi (2015), pp. 141–142.
64.
Keller (1994), p. 749.
65.
Heilmann (2009), pp. 457–458.
66.
With regard to the status of SEZ regulations, see more closely Sect. 4.2.2.3.
67.
Lubman (2006), pp. 34–35.
68.
Paler (2005), p. 301; Chow (2003), p. 81; Saich (2011), p. 181.
69.
Cartier (2005), p. 22.
70.
Cartier (2005), p. 22.
71.
Cartier (2005), p. 22; Blasek (2015), p. 28.
72.
Chen (1996b), p. 18. Cities, such as Shanghai, Beijing or Shenzhen, easily compete with the developed world in many regards while farming continues to dominate reality in many rural, poorer areas.
73.
Saich (2011), p. 180.
74.
The five autonomous regions include Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Guangxi, Ningxia and Tibet.
75.
These centrally administered municipalities include Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin and Chongqing.
76.
Article 95 (1) of the Constitution.
77.
See more closely Bregolat (2015), p. 34.
78.
Article 30 (1) of the Constitution.
79.
Wu (2014), pp. 57–58.
80.
With regard to the rights of national minorities to autonomy see Wu (2014), pp. 69–73.
81.
Special Economic Regions are autonomous territories that fall within the sovereignty of the PRC but retain their own political and legal system as well as their own economic and financial affairs according to the constitutional principle of “One Country, Two Systems”. The concept “One country, Two systems” was officially formulated by Deng Xiaoping in 1984 and allows different political, administrative, legal and social systems to coexist in a unified sovereignty, see more detailed Zhu (2012), pp. 275–277.
82.
Zhu (1999), p. 39.
83.
Article 30 (1) of the Constitution.
84.
Article 30 (3) of the Constitution.
85.
Chien (2010), p. 128.
86.
Chien (2010), p. 128.
87.
Article 30 (2), (4) of the Constitution.
88.
Fenwick (1984), p. 387.
89.
Zhu (2012), p. 278.
90.
Zhu (2012), p. 278.
91.
Zhang (2015b), p. 23.
92.
Corne (2008), p. I-5.3.
93.
According to Article 70 et seq. of the German Constitution, the powers are split between the federal and the member-state level which underscores the sovereignty of member states.
94.
Moore (2014), http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/12/opinion/the-united-states-of-china.html?_r=0, accessed 21 December 2017.
95.
Moore (2014), http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/12/opinion/the-united-states-of-china.html?_r=0, accessed 21 December 2017.
96.
Lin (2015), p. 72.
97.
See for example Li (2010), pp. 187–188.
98.
On this issue see in detail below, Sect. 2.2.3.3.2 of this chapter.
99.
Zhang (2012), p. 91; Li (2000), pp. 122–123. Bu Yuanshi speaks of the Legislation Law as a “law to complement the constitution” (Gesetz zur Ergänzung der Verfassung), see Bu (2015), p. 790.
100.
China Daily (2015), http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015twosession/2015-03/15/content_19813572.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
101.
Article 72 (2) of the Legislation Law 2015.
102.
China Daily (2015), http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015twosession/2015-03/15/content_19813572.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
103.
Corne (2008), p. I-5.3.
104.
Li (2000), p. 125; Zhang (2012), pp. 108–109. Zhang Qianfan states that “central-local relations have been trapped in a rather ‘lawless’ state”, see Zhang (2015b), p. 23.
105.
Blasek (2015), p. 21.
106.
Blasek (2015), p. 22.
107.
See in detail Blasek (2015), pp. 19–25.
108.
Blasek (2015), pp. 28–32.
109.
Lin (2015), p. 66; Zhou (2015), p. 141.
110.
Article 89 No 1 of the Constitution.
111.
Blasek (2015), p. 29; Peerenboom (2007), pp. 3–4.
112.
Blasek notes that it is fairly striking that the judicial interpretation by which, strictly speaking, the judiciary rules its own matters, constitutes a source of law, see Blasek (2015), p. 29.
113.
Blasek (2015), p. 29.
114.
Keller (1994), p. 732; Wang (2010), p. 21.
115.
The Constitution of the CCP (中国共产党章程) was revised and adopted at the 19th National Congress of the CCP on October 24, 2017. The Chinese version is available at http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/19cpcnc/2017-10/28/c_1121870794.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
116.
See more closely China Financialyst (2014), p. 11. An English translation can be found at Creemers (2014b), https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/10/23/official-central-committee-communique-on-4th-plenum/, accessed 20 December 2017.
117.
Lieberthal (2004), p. 186. Teresa Wright clarifies that unlike in Western liberal democracies where political parties grew out of a pre-existing state, in China post 1949, the state was created by the CCP, see Wright (2015), p. 20.
118.
Lieberthal (2004), p. 186.
119.
Article 10 (3), Article 19 (1) of the Constitution of the CCP from October 2017.
120.
Article 23 (2) of the Constitution of the CCP.
121.
Article 23 (1) of the Constitution of the CCP.
122.
Article 23 (4) of the Constitution of the CCP.
123.
Lieberthal (2004), pp. 186–187. Also in the economy, the party cells are present: They do not only have CEOs, but also Party secretaries, see Yan (2004), p. 162.
124.
Bo (2013), pp. 24–25.
125.
Lieberthal (2004), p. 187.
126.
Lieberthal (2004), p. 187.
127.
Lieberthal (2004), p. 187. He speaks of “the largest bureaucracy in the world”.
128.
Kornai (1992), pp. 37–39; Guo (2013), p. 8.
129.
Guo (2013), p. 74.
130.
See also Brown (2012), p. 67.
131.
Xiang Lanxin states that “China under Mao Zedong (毛泽东) was a state with an ideological mission. Mao was prepared to defend this ideology to the extent of destroying the party apparatus itself (…) The current regime, by contrast, has turned away from ideology, leaving self-preservation as the only purpose of the state”, see more closely Xiang (2017), http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/2104286/why-xi-jinping-must-tackle-myth-princeling-legitimacy-rule, accessed 20 December 2017.
132.
Guo (2013), p. 181.
133.
Blasek (2015), p. 44.
134.
Guo (2013), p. 181. Guo Sujian strongly opposes the view that post-Mao legal reforms lead to a “rule of law” society or a “creeping democratization” as argued by Pei (1995), p. 65; von Senger (1994), p. 205.
135.
See Article 3 of the Legislation Law.
136.
Blasek (2015), p. 79.
137.
Guo (2013), p. 185.
138.
Epstein (1993), p. 227.
139.
Cole (2015), http://thediplomat.com/2015/07/just-how-far-will-chinese-tolerate-the-ccps-authoritarianism/, accessed 20 December 2017.
140.
See more closely the opening speech by Xi Jinping, published in Xinhuanet (2017), http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/19cpcnc/2017-10/27/c_1121867529.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
141.
Wang (2017), https://www.globalpolicywatch.com/2017/10/chinas-19th-party-congress-affirming-xis-leadership-and-policies/, accessed 20 December 2017.
142.
Cole (2015), http://thediplomat.com/2015/07/just-how-far-will-chinese-tolerate-the-ccps-authoritarianism/, accessed 20 December 2017.
143.
Lieberthal (2004), p. 317; Zheng (2007), p. 245; Heuser (1998), pp. 81–82. This shows that a lot of the think tank type stimulus comes from within the Party.
144.
Concerning the concept of fragmented authoritarianism, see more closely Guo (2013), pp. 18–19.
145.
For details on “adaptive authoritarianism”, see Heilmann and Perry (2011), pp. 8–10.
146.
Shen (2000), p. 24.
147.
Shen (2000), p. 24.
148.
With regard to the expression 依法治国, the theme of the Fourth Plenum, the documents change in wording between “rule of law” and “governing the country according to law”. From a Western perspective, the latter translation would be correct, see also Beauchamp-Mustafaga (2014), pp. 1–3.
149.
Cf. Official Central Communiqué on Fourth Plenum (中国共产党第十八届中央委员会第四次全体会议公报), passed at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on 23 October 2014, see Creemers (2014b), https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/10/23/official-central-committee-communique-on-4th-plenum/, accessed 20 December 2017.
150.
Cf. Decision of the CCP Central Committee on Major Issues Pertaining to Comprehensively Promoting the Rule of Law (中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定), passed on October 23, 2014 at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, see Creemers (2014a), https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/10/28/ccp-central-committee-decision-concerning-some-major-questions-in-comprehensively-moving-governing-the-country-according-to-the-law-forward/, accessed 22 December 2017. The Decision offers more details than the Communiqué released earlier.
151.
For an overview on the reforms promoted by the Fourth Plenum, see Clarke (2015), pp. 11–14. The documents of the Fourth Plenum, the Communiqué and the Decision, have to be seen in the context of the CCP Central Committee Resolution concerning Some Major Issues in Comprehensively Deepening Reform, adopted at the Third Plenum of the 18th CCP Central Committee on November 2013, see above in Sect. 2.1.2.
152.
Clarke (2015), p. 16.
153.
Clarke (2015), p. 16.
154.
Feng (2016), p. 56; Clarke (2015), p. 10.
155.
Blasek (2015), p. 16.
156.
Shen (2000), p. 35.
157.
Zhang (2015c), p. 453.
158.
See BBC News - Asia (2015), http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-31622571, accessed 20 December 2017.
159.
Cf. Decision of the CCP Central Committee on Major Issues Pertaining to Comprehensively Promoting the Rule of Law, see Creemers (2014a), https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/10/28/ccp-central-committee-decision-concerning-some-major-questions-in-comprehensively-moving-governing-the-country-according-to-the-law-forward/, accessed 22 December 2017.
160.
Chinese top legislator Wu Bangguo said that by the end of 2010, China had enacted 236 laws, over 690 administrative regulations and more than 8600 local statutes that are in force, see China Daily Europe (2011), http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-03/10/content_12149185.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
161.
Keller (1994), p. 736.
162.
For example, the terms guiding (规定) and tiaoli (条例) are used interchangeably although their regulatory content is different: Tiaoli refers to a regulation of rather comprehensive and general scope. Guiding, however, has a more narrow and detailed content and can also be of supplementary character, see more closely Corne (1997), pp. 64–65. Most Shenzhen SEZ regulations enacted by the Standing Committee of Shenzhen Municipal People’s Congress enjoying delegated legislative power, are issued in form of tiaoli. Confusingly enough, zanxing guiding 暂行规定 (interim provisions) can be enacted by both the standing committee and the people’s government at local level: For example, the 1981 Interim Provisions for Labor and Wage Management in Shenzhen Special Economic Zone in Guangdong Province are enacted by the Standing Committee of the People’s Congress of Guangdong Province. The 1992 Interim Provisions of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zones on Enterprise Wage Administration are enacted by the Shenzhen Municipal Government.
163.
Wei and Vanhullebusch (2015), p. 324.
164.
Wright (2015), p. 29.
165.
Article 61 of the Constitution.
166.
Article 62 No 1 of the Constitution.
167.
Article 62 No 3 of the Constitution.
168.
See more closely Zhou (1992), p. 115.
169.
Zhang (2015b), p. 19.
170.
Heilmann (2004), p. 135.
171.
Article 65 (3) of the Constitution.
172.
Keller (1994), p. 735; Zhou (1992), p. 115; Blasek (2015), pp. 54–55.
173.
Li (2000), p. 130.
174.
See for example Article 52 (2) of the Legislation Law 2015 which stipulates that the operating divisions of the NPCSC shall be responsible for developing the comprehensive legislative plan. See also Article 39, Article 53; for more details see You (2015), p. 640.
175.
You (2015), p. 640.
176.
According to Article 67 No 3, No 4 of the Constitution, the NPCSC has the power to supplement and amend law; according to Article 67 No 4 of the Constitution and Article 45 (1) of the Legislation Law 2015, the NPCSC also has the right to interpret laws; concerning the legislative competences of the NPC and NPCSC, see also Corne (2002), p. 378.
177.
Corne (2002), p. 378.
178.
See more closely Sects. 4.2.3 and 4.2.4.
179.
Corne (1997), p. 57.
180.
Blasek (2015), p. 29.
181.
Li (2000), p. 131.
182.
Decision of the Third Session of the Sixth National People’s Congress on Authorizing the State Council to Formulate Interim Provisions or Regulations Concerning the Reform of the Economic Structure and the Open Door Policy (全国人民代表大会关于授权国务院在经济体制改革和对外开放方面可以制定暂行的规定或者条例的决定), adopted on April 10, 1985.
183.
Kroymann (2009), pp. 25–26.
184.
The amendment sets a limit on the time period of the delegated authorization, requiring that it be valid for no more than 5 years, cf. Article 10 (1), (2) of the Legislation Law 2015. Furthermore, the State Council must report to the NPC 6 months before the expiration of the authorization; the NPC will decide whether to extend the authorization or to adopt a law on the given subject instead, Article 10 (3) of the Legislation Law 2015.
185.
Xia (2008), pp. 35–36.
186.
Zhao (2010), pp. 160–162.
187.
Chen (1996b), p. 18.
188.
Sang (1993–1994), p. 132.
189.
Zhao (2010), p. 159.
190.
See, for example, Zhang (2011), p. 51.
191.
Chen (1996b), p. 18; Ginsburg (2012), pp. 141–142.
192.
See above, Sect. 2.2.1.
193.
Wang (2005a), p. 28.
194.
Zhao (2010), pp. 160–161. With regard to the term “innovation” (chuangxin 创新), see Zhou (2007), p. 139.
195.
Article 100 of the Constitution; Article 72 (2) of the Legislation Law. The approval requirement does not concern the provincial legislature but applies to, for example, cities divided into districts.
196.
Article 72 (1) of the Legislation Law.
197.
Zhao (2010), p. 161.
198.
This is a special feature of delegated legislative power enjoyed by SEZs and will be more closely analyzed in Chaps. 4 and 5.
199.
Heilmann (2009), p. 453.
200.
Heilmann (2009), p. 456.
201.
Heilmann (2009), p. 457.
202.
Heilmann (2009), p. 458.
203.
Qian and Du (2015), p. 10.
204.
Zhao (2010), pp. 161–162.
205.
Heilmann (2009), p. 458.
206.
中华人民共和国地方各级人民代表大会和地方各级人民政府组织法.
207.
Concerning the history of local legislation, see also Yang and Yang (2016), p. 119.
208.
Zou (2006), p. 90.
209.
See Article 27 (2) of the 1982 revised version of Organic Law.
210.
See Article 35 (1) of the 1982 revised version of Organic Law.
211.
Article 7 (2) of the 1986 revised version of Organic Law.
212.
Wu and Li (2015), p. 259.
213.
Chongqing, for example, used to be a comparatively large city approved by the State Council until it obtained the status of directly administered city in March 1997, see Xiang (2009), http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/zt/qt/dfrd30year/2009-04/14/content_1497665.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
214.
Zhang (2015a), https://news.qq.com/a/20150315/006904.htm, accessed 20 December 2017. Since 1994 the State Council has not exercised his right to approve the status of comparatively large cities, although many cities (such as Tianshui) have been applying for obtaining this advantageous status associated with local legislative power, see Wang (2005b), http://www.tianshui.com.cn/news/tianshui/2005100911093333421.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
215.
Email from Hu Minjie to the author, August 4, 2015 (quoted with the authorization of the questionee). She emphasizes that the legal term “city divided into districts” refers to most prefecture-level cities. There are only a few prefecture-level cities which are not divided into districts. According to Article 89 No 15 of the Constitution, the establishment and geographic division of cities require the approval of the State Council that is responsible for developing and revising the relevant criteria and guidelines, see also Cartier (2005), p. 45.
216.
Zhang (2015a), https://news.qq.com/a/20150315/006904.htm, accessed 20 December 2017.
217.
See Article 63 (1), (2), (4) of the Legislation Law 2000.
218.
Wu and Li (2015), p. 259.
219.
Su (2014), http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/xinwen/2014-08/30/content_1876510.htm, accessed 20 December 2017; Zhang (2015a), https://news.qq.com/a/20150315/006904.htm, accessed 20 December 2017. It has also been argued that Article 63 of the Legislation Law 2000 assigning local legislative power to comparatively large cities thereby excluding all the other cities divided into districts, violated the principle of equality (pingdeng yuanze 平等原则), see Pang (2015), p. 76; Yuan (2015), p. 73.
220.
The Communiqué of the Fourth Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, passed on October 23, 2014, expressed the need of an expansion of local legislative power through an amended Legislation Law: It states that cities divided into districts had to be endowed with local powers according to the law (依法赋予设区的市地方立法权).
221.
See Article 72 (2) of the Legislation Law 2015.
222.
Wang (2015), pp. 111–112; Yin (2015), http://www.bjreview.com.cn/quotes/txt/2015-06/04/content_680341_3.htm, accessed 22 December 2017.
223.
Yin (2015), http://www.bjreview.com.cn/quotes/txt/2015-06/04/content_680341_3.htm, accessed 22 December 2017.
224.
See more closely Zou (2006), p. 91.
225.
Article 100 of the Constitution; Article 72 (1) of the Legislation Law.
226.
Article 72 (2), (5) of the Legislation Law.
227.
Autonomous regulations (zizhi tiaoli 自治条例) are comprehensive in scope, laying out the overall policy aims whereas separate regulations or individual regulations (danxing tiaoli 单行条例) address narrowly defined matters such as financial management, technology and so forth, see Erie (2016), p. 70.
228.
Article 72 (5), Article 72 (2) of the Legislation Law 2015; Article 4 (2) of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Regional National Autonomy (民族区域自治法), amended in 2001.
229.
Email from Hu Minjie to the author, August 27, 2015 (quoted with the authorization of the questionee).
230.
Article 116 of the Constitution; Article 75 of the Legislation Law.
231.
Whereas provincial people’s congresses are not required to obtain central approval for their legislation, the autonomous regulations made at the regional level must be approved by the Standing Committee of the NPC, and those made by lower level autonomous authorities must be approved by the standing committees of the people’s congresses of the autonomous region or the province concerned, before they acquire legal effect, see Chen (2015), p. 247.
232.
Zou (2006), p. 91.
233.
Zou (2006), p. 91.
234.
Keller (1994), p. 749.
235.
Keller (1994), p. 750.
236.
Li and Otto (2002), p. 22.
237.
Zou (2006), p. 92.
238.
Li (2011), p. 152.
239.
Li and Otto (2002), p. 21.
240.
The overarching principle “seeking truth from facts” was formulated at the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the CCP, held from December 18 to December 22, 1978.
241.
Tian (2011), p. 16; Chen (1996b), pp. 18–19.
242.
Chen (1996b), pp. 18–19; Tian (2011), pp. 16–17.
243.
Han (2012), pp. 43–44.
244.
Lee (2000), p. 279.
245.
Paler (2005), p. 307.
246.
Article 73 (2) of the Legislation Law.
247.
Wu and Li (2015), pp. 261–262; Li and Otto (2002), p. 21.
248.
Article 72 (1) of the German Constitution states that on matters within the concurrent legislative power, the Laender (states) shall have power to legislate so long as and to the extent that the Federation has not exercised its legislative power. Concerning the comparison between “legislation in advance” in Chinese law and the provision on concurrent legislative powers in German law, see also Li (2000), p. 129.
249.
Article 74 of the German Constitution.
250.
See Article 72 (3) of the German Constitution.
251.
Paler (2005), p. 307; Zhang (2012), p. 88; Li (2000), p. 129.
252.
Zou (2006), p. 91.
253.
The expression “bu dichu” conveys a principle regulating conflict of norms (yi zhong lifa guanxi de yuanze 一种立法关系的原则), see Ye (2002), p. 71. It is manifest in the Legislation Law (Article 63 (1) of the Legislation Law 2000; Article 72 (1) of the Legislation Law 2015) as well as in the Local Organic Law (Article 7 of the Local Organic Law 2015).
254.
Cui and Lei (2009), p. 48.
255.
Xinhuanet (2008), http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-08/21/content_1038081_2.htm, accessed 14 December 2015. According to Article 50 of the Legislation Law 2015/Article 47 of the Legislation Law 2000, interpretations of laws adopted by the NPCSC have the same effect as laws.
256.
Zou (2006), p. 98.
257.
Zou (2006), p. 99.
258.
Cui and Lei (2009), p. 48.
259.
Cui and Lei (2009), p. 48.
260.
See above, Sect. 2.2.3.3.1.
261.
Di (2014), http://newspaper.jcrb.com/html/2014-10/20/content_170382.htm, accessed 17 December 2017; Zhao (2010), p. 161. According to Article 73 (4) of the Legislation Law 2015, repetitive provisions on the matters that have been explicitly prescribed in the superordinate law are forbidden in the development of local regulations.
262.
Di (2014), http://newspaper.jcrb.com/html/2014-10/20/content_170382.htm, accessed 17 December 2017; Lu (2014), http://article.chinalawinfo.com/ArticleFullText.aspx?ArticleId=82774, accessed 21 December 2017.
263.
Zou Keyuan emphasizes that ultra vires local legislation is a serious matter, see Zou (2006), p. 95. Concerning the inconsistency between national and local legislations, see also Lubman (2006), pp. 34–35; Ke (2012), p. 97.
264.
Zhao (2010), p. 161.
265.
Qiao (2015), http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/lfzt/rlyw/2015-09/28/content_1947291.htm, accessed 17 December 2017; Zhou (2004), p. 222.
266.
Zhou (2004), p. 222.
267.
Wu and Li (2015), p. 262; Lu (2014), http://article.chinalawinfo.com/ArticleFullText.aspx?ArticleId=82774, accessed 21 December 2017.
268.
Qiao (2015), http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/lfzt/rlyw/2015-09/28/content_1947291.htm, accessed 17 December 2017. Some scholars hoped the revision of Legislation Law would clarify the “non-contravention”-principle by, for example, emphasizing respect for individual rights, see Di (2014), http://newspaper.jcrb.com/html/2014-10/20/content_170382.htm, accessed 17 December 2017.
269.
See below, Sects. 4.2.2.3.1 and 6.2.2.2.
270.
Drysdale (2015), http://www.businessspectator.com.au/article/2015/5/13/china/rule-law-and-chinas-one-party-state, accessed 20 December 2017.
271.
Concerning the dense intertwining of law and policy, see also Epstein (1993), p. 222.
272.
Heuser (1999), p. 206; von Senger (1994), p. 201.
273.
Heuser (1999), p. 187.
274.
Heuser (1999), p. 207; Peerenboom (2001), p. 214.
275.
中华人民共和国民法通则. The General Principles of Civil Law from 1986, revised in 2009 and the General Provisions of Civil Law (中华人民共和国民法总则), effective as of October 1, 2017, will be applicable in parallel (at least until 2020).
276.
中华人民共和国合同法.
277.
Heuser (1999), p. 208.
278.
Blasek (2015), p. 44.
279.
The General Provisions of the Civil Law of the PRC (中华人民共和国民法总则) were adopted at the Fifth Session of the 12th National People’s Congress on March 15, 2017 and came into force on October 1, 2017. They represent a set of guiding principles that forms the opening chapter for China’s first unified code of civil law expected be enacted in 2020.
280.
Song (2017), http://www.bjreview.com/Nation/201703/t20170327_800092131.html, accessed 20 December 2017.
281.
Nishitateno (1983), p. 180.
282.
Zhou (2000), p. 72.
283.
Epstein (1993), p. 222.
284.
Chen (1996a), p. 13.
285.
Heuser (1999), p. 206.
286.
Zhou (2000), p. 72.
287.
Zhou (2000), p. 72.
288.
Kroymann (2009), p. 29.
289.
Cf. Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Major Issues Pertaining to Comprehensively Promoting the Rule of Law (中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定), passed on October 23, 2014 at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, see Creemers (2014a), https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/10/28/ccp-central-committee-decision-concerning-some-major-questions-in-comprehensively-moving-governing-the-country-according-to-the-law-forward/, accessed 22 December 2017.

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Madeleine Martinek

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Martinek, M. (2018). Socio-Economic and Legal Foundations of Modern China. In: Experimental Legislation in China between Efficiency and Legality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77616-3_2

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77616-3_2
Published: 22 May 2018
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