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Philanthropy and Race in the Haitian Revolution

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Abstract

A minority of primarily white, male, French philanthropists used their social standing and talents to improve the lives of peoples of African descent in Saint-Domingue during the crucial period of the Haitian Revolution. By focusing on this little-known, often overlooked group of philanthropists, my book explores the complicated racial relationships of the Haitian Revolution and offers a view that takes into account the efforts of all peoples who worked to end slavery and establish racial equality in Saint-Domingue. This book challenge simplistic notions of the Haitian Revolution, which lean too heavily on an assumed strict racial divide between black and white.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    François-Xavier Martin, Orleans Term Reports (St. Paul: West Publishing, 1913), p. 129.

  2. 2.

    Testimony of Antoine Remy, in Recueil des dépositions faites pour et contre le Sr. P. Dormenon par-devant la Cour Supérieure du Territoire de la Nouvelle-Orleans, trans. Carol Johnston (New Orleans: Chez [House of] A. Daudet, 1809), pp. 11–12.

  3. 3.

    Most of these white French men were born in metropolitan France. However, many spent extensive periods in Saint-Domingue, some even the majority of their lives. In addition to those born in France, a minority of the white philanthropists were creoles, born in Saint-Domingue or elsewhere in the French Caribbean colonies.

  4. 4.

    This expands upon the connections Lynn Hunt made between the French Revolution and human rights. Philanthropists in the Haitian Revolution also pursued the universal application of human rights within the Atlantic World. See Hunt, The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1996). See also Nick Nesbitt, Universal Emancipation: The Haitian Revolution and the Radical Enlightenment (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008).

  5. 5.

    See for example Laurent Dubois, Les Esclaves de la République: L’Histoire oubliée de la première émancipation, 1789–1794 (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1998). Jeremy D. Popkin has conducted research on whites who were not active participants on behalf of liberty and equality. See for example Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007) and “The French Revolution’s Royal Governor: General Blanchelande and Saint-Domingue, 1790–92,” The William and Mary Quarterly vol. 71, no. 2 (April 2014): pp. 203–228.

  6. 6.

    Jennifer Spear has made an argument for racial fluidity under the French in colonial New Orleans. She claims race did not matter as much as historians have long assumed. See Race, Sex, and Social Order in Early New Orleans (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009). See also Bill Marshall, The French Atlantic: Travels in Culture and History (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009); Marshall, “French Atlantic Diasporas,” in Comparing Postcolonial Diasporas, Michelle Keown, David Murphy, and James Procter, eds. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 189–210; Dominique Rogers, “The Complex Route to Integration of the Free People of Color in the Two Capitals of Saint-Domingue,” in The World of the Haitian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), pp. 65–72; Kenneth R. Aslakson, Making Race in the Courtroom: The Legal Construction of Three Races in Early New Orleans (New York: NYU Press, 2014); and Jennifer L. Palmer, Intimate Bonds: Family and Slavery in the French Atlantic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).

  7. 7.

    For histories of race in the eighteenth-century Atlantic World, see for example Guillaume Aubert, “‘The Blood of France’: Race and Purity of the Blood in the French Atlantic World,” William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 3 (2004): pp. 439–478; Ira Berlin, “From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of Africa-American Society in Mainland North America,” The William and Mary Quarterly vol. 53 (1996): pp. 251–288; Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Race and the Enlightenment (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); John K. Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Robert Bernasconi and Tommy L. Lott, eds., The Idea of Race (Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000); George M. Frederickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2002); Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1997); David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Oxford, Blackwell, 1993); Michael A. Morrison and James Brewer Stewart, eds. Race and the Early Republic: Racial Consciousness and Nation-Building in the Early Republic (Landham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002); Andrew Valls, ed., Race and Racism in Modern Philosophy (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2005); Colin Kidd, The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic, 1600–2000 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

  8. 8.

    See for example Martial Besse to the Civil Commissioners, 30 September 1794, DXXV 50, Archives Nationales [hereafter cited as AN]; L’Assemblée coloniale de la partie française de Saint-Domingue, aux quatre-vingt-trois Départements de la France, aux Places des Commerce aux Manufactures de la Métropole, 17 February 1791, DXXV 112, AN; “Extrait d’une lettre de Madame de Saintard, habitante de la Paroisse de l’Archaye, à Monsieur son fils, du 6 Septembre 1790,” Nouvelles de Saint-Domingue, no. 6, p. 2; M. de Pons, Observations sur la situation politique de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Imprimerie de Quillau, 1790), pp. 18–19; Sur la question des gens de couleur, par M. Roume, créole et commissaire-ordonnateur de l’île de Tabago, 11 May 1790, p. 5, 87 MIOM 10, Archives nationales d’outre-mer [hereafter cited as ANOM]; Mémoires de M. Blanchelande, sur son administration à Saint-Domingue, 1791, 87 MIOM 76, ANOM; and L’Ami de l’Egalité, no. 11, 17 July 1793, p. 6.

  9. 9.

    “Philantrope,” Dictionnaire de l’Académie Française, 4 ed., 1765, p. 364, and 5 ed., 1798, p. 364.

  10. 10.

    Marty Sulek, “On the Modern Meaning of Philanthropy,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, vol. 39, no. 2 (April 2010), p. 196. Sulek lists John Locke, Adam Smith, and Edward Gibbon as examples of English writers using the alternative phrasing. “Humanité,” vol. 8 (1765), p. 348 in The Encyclopedia: Selections: Diderot, d’Alembert and a Society of Men of Letters, Nelly S. Hoyt and Thomas Cassirer, trans. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965).

  11. 11.

    Sulek, “On the Modern Meaning of Philanthropy,” p. 197.

  12. 12.

    David Garrioch, “Making a Better World: Enlightenment and Philanthropy,” in The Enlightenment World, Martin Fitzpatrick, Peter Jones, Christa Knellwolf, and Iain McCalman, eds. (New York: Routledge, 2004), p. 487.

  13. 13.

    In France, the Duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt operated a school for the sons of soldiers that included a farm for agricultural training. Garrioch, “Making a Better World,” p. 489, 496. In Saint-Domingue, French philanthropists (discussed in a later chapter) established schools that included plantation work. Both of these philanthropic projects were good for the individuals as well as society as whole while maintaining forms of social hierarchy.

  14. 14.

    Garrioch, “Making a Better World,” pp. 494–495. Françoise Vergès observed similar paternalism among abolitionists and humanitarians in the nineteenth century. See Abolir l’esclavage:Une Utopie colonial: Les Ambiguïtés d’un politique humanitaire (Paris: Albin Michel, 2001).

  15. 15.

    For more on Diderot, Kant, Herder, and imperial paternalism, see Sankar Muthu, Enlightenment against Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).

  16. 16.

    See for example Sydney V. James, A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963); Robert Bremner, American Philanthropy (University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 20–39; Amanda Porterfield, “Protestant Missionaries: Pioneers of American Philanthropy,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark G. McGarvie, eds. (Cambridge University, 2003), pp. 49–69; G. J. Barker-Benfield, “The Origins of Anglo-American Sensibility,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, pp. 71–89; and Bruce R. Sievers, Civil Society, Philanthropy, and the Fate of the Commons (UPNE, 2010), pp. 84–106.

  17. 17.

    She notes the American Revolution as an exception, likely because the colonists did not abolish slavery. She first published these ideas in the United States in 1963. Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (London: Penguin Books, 1990), pp. 71–73, 79–81.

  18. 18.

    Norman S. Fiering, “Irresistible Compassion: An Aspect of Eighteenth-Century Sympathy and Humanitarianism,” Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 36, no. 2 (1976): pp. 195–218.

  19. 19.

    See for example Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London: Routledge, 1992); David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Melanie Newton, “Philanthropy, Gender, and the Production of Public Life in Barbados, ca. 1790-ca. 1850,” in Gender and Slave Emancipation in the Atlantic World, Pamela Scully and Diana Paton, eds. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), pp. 225–246; Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Francois Furstenberg, “Atlantic Slavery, Atlantic Freedom: George Washington, Slavery, and Transatlantic Abolitionist Networks,” William and Mary Quarterly vol. 68, no. 2 (2011): pp. 247–286; Travis Glasson, Mastering Christianity: Missionary Anglicanism and Slavery in the Atlantic World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); J. R. Oldfield, Transatlantic Abolitionism in the Age of Revolution: An International History of Anti-Slavery, c. 1787–1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); and Amanda Moniz, From Empire to Humanity: The American Revolution and the Origins of Humanitarianism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

  20. 20.

    Barbara L. Bellows, Benevolence among Slaveholders: Assisting the Poor in Charleston, 1670–1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993).

  21. 21.

    Ashli White, Encountering Revolution: Haiti and the Making of the Early Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2010).

  22. 22.

    Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, 3 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Courtois, 1847); Beaubrun Ardouin, Etudes sur l’histoire d’Haïti, suivies de la vie du General J.-M. Borgella. 11 vols. (Paris: Dezobry, 1853–1860).

  23. 23.

    C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins (New York: The Dial Press, 1938); Pierre Pluchon, Toussaint Louverture: de l’esclavage au pouvoir (Paris: Fayard, 1979).

  24. 24.

    Jean Fouchard, Les marrons de Liberté (Paris: Editions de l’Ecole, 1972); Gabriel Debien, Le commerce nantais et la perte de Saint-Domingue: d’après une correspondance de la maison Lebourg (Port-au-Prince: Valcin, 1944); Les colons de Saint-Domingue et la Révolution: essai sur le club Massiac (Paris: Colin, 1952); Esprit colon et esprit d’autonomie à Saint-Domingue au XXVIIIe siècle (Paris: n.p., 1954); Plantations et esclaves à Saint-Domingue (Dakar: n.p., 1962); Les esclaves aux Antilles françaises, XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles (Basse-Terre: Société d’histoire de la Guadeloupe, 1974); Robin Blackburn, “Haiti, Slavery, and the Age of Democratic Reovlution,” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 63, no. 4 (2006): pp. 643–674; The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848 (Verso, 1988).

  25. 25.

    See for example Willy Apollon, Le Vaudou: un espace pour les “voix” (Paris: Editions Galilee, 1976). Apollon, a psychoanalyst at the Interdisciplinary Freudian Group for Research and Clinical and Cultural Interventions in Quebec, emphasizes the importance of slave religion, specifically voudou. See also John K. Thornton, “‘I am the Subject of the King of Congo:’ African political ideology in the Haitian Revolution,” Journal of World History vol. 4, no. 2 (Fall, 1993): pp. 181–214. Thornton explores the royalist ideology embraced by the Kongolese slaves imported to Saint-Domingue in the years just prior to the Haitian Revolution.

  26. 26.

    Carolyn Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from below (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990).

  27. 27.

    David Geggus, Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002); The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001); and Dubois , Avengers of the New World.

  28. 28.

    See for example Jacques Barzun, The French Race: Theories of Its Origins and Their Social and Political Implications Prior to the Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932); Roger Mercier, L’Afrique noire dans la littérature française: Les Premières images, XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles (Dakar: Université de Dakar, Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, 1962); Yvan Debbasch, Couleur et liberté: Le Jeu de critère ethnique dans un ordre juridique esclavagiste (Paris: Libraire Dalloz, 1967); Richard H. Popkin, “The Philosophical Basis of Eighteenth-Century Racism,” in Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture: Racism in the Eighteenth Century, Harold E. Pagliaro, ed. (Cleveland: Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1973), pp. 254–262; William Cohen, The French Encounter with Africans: White Response to Blacks, 1530–1880 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980); Pierre Pluchon, Nègres et Juifs au XVIIIe siècle: le racisme au siècle des Lumières (Paris: Tallandier, 1984); “Race,” Writing, and Difference, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Pierre H. Boulle, “In Defense of Slavery: Eighteenth-Century Opposition to Abolition and the Origins of a Racist Ideology in France,” in History from Below: Studies in Popular Protest and Popular Ideology, Frederick Krantz, ed. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), pp. 219–246; Louis Sala-Moulins, Les misères des Lumières: sous la raison, l’outrage (Paris: R. Laffont, 1992); A. J. R. Russell-Wood, “Before Columbus: Portugal’s African Prelude to the Middle Passage and Contribution to Discourse on Race,” in Race, Discourse and the Origins of the Americas, Vera Lawrence Hyatt and Rex Nettleford, eds. (Washington, D.C., 1995), pp. 134–168; Michel-Rolph Truillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), pp. 74–89; Sue Peabody, “There are No Slaves in France”: The Political Culture of Race and Slavery in the Ancien Régime (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader, Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); David Brion Davis, “Constructing Race: A Reflection,” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 54, no. 1 (1997): pp. 7–18; John D. Garrigus, “Redrawing the Color Line: Gender and Social Construction of Race in Pre-Revolutionary Haiti,” Journal of Caribbean History, vol. 30, no. 1 & 2 (1999): pp. 29–50; Sue Peabody, “‘A Nation Born to Slavery’: Missionaries and Racial Discourse in Seventeenth-Century French Antilles,” Journal of Social History, vol. 38, no. 1 (2004): pp. 113–126; Erik Noël, Etre Noir en France au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Tallandier, 2006); Christopher L. Miller, The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); and Translating Slavery: Gender and Race in French Abolitionist Writing, 1700–1830, vol. 1, 2 ed., Doris Y. Kadish and Françoise Massardier-Kenney, eds. (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2009).

  29. 29.

    Charles Frostin, Histoire de l’autonomisme colon de la partie française de St. Domingue aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Contribution à l’étude du sentiment américain d’indépendance (Lille: Université de Lille, 1973); and Les révoltes blanches à Saint-Domingue aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris: l’Ecole, 1975).

  30. 30.

    Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution.

  31. 31.

    See for example Cecily Forde-Jones, “Mapping Racial Boundaries: Gender, Race, and Poor Relief in Barbadian Plantation Society,” Journal of Women’s History, vol. 10, no. 3 (1998): pp. 9–31; Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Routledge, 2003); David Lambert, White Creole Culture, Politics and Identity during the Age of Abolition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Christer Petley, “Slavery, Emancipation and the Creole World View of Jamaican Colonists, 1800–1834,” Slavery and Abolition, vol. 26, no. 1 (2005): pp. 93–114; Natalie Zacek, “Class Struggle in a West Indian Plantation Society,” in Class Matters: Early North America and the Atlantic World, Simon Middleton and Billy G. Smith, eds. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), pp. 62–75; and Zacek, “Searching for the Invisible Woman: The Evolution of White Women’s Experience in Britain’s West Indian Colonies,” History Compass, vol. 7, no. 1 (2009): pp. 329–341.

  32. 32.

    Yvonne Fabella, “Redeeming the ‘Character of the Creoles’: Whiteness, Gender and Creolization in Pre-Revolutionary Saint Domingue,” Journal of Historical Sociology, vol. 23, no. 2 (2010): pp. 40–72.

  33. 33.

    James E. McClellan III, Colonialism and Science: Saint-Domingue in the Old Regime (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2010), p. 49, 181.

  34. 34.

    For more on male sociability and the Age of Sentiment, see for example Markman Ellis, The Politics of Sensibility: Race, Gender and Commerce in the Sentimental Novel (Cambridge University Press, 1996); Janet M. Burke and Maragaret C. Jacob, “French Freemasonry, Women, and Feminist Scholarship,” The Journal of Modern History, vol. 68, no. 3 (1996): pp. 513–549; and Jan C. Jansen, “In Search of Atlantic Sociability: Freemasons, Empire, and Atlantic History,” Bulletin of GHI, vol. 57 (2015): pp. 75–99.

  35. 35.

    Kenneth Loiselle, Brotherly Love: Freemasonry and Male Friendship in Enlightenment France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2014), p. 3.

  36. 36.

    John D. Garrigus, Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); Garrigus, “Vincent Ogé Jeune (1757–91): Social Class and Free Colored Mobilization on the Eve of the Haitian Revolution,” The Americas, vol. 68, no. 1 (2011): pp. 33–62; John Garrigus, “Colour, Class and Identity on the Eve of the Haitian Revolution: Saint-Domingue’s Freed Coloured Elites as Colons américains,” in Slavery and Abolition, vol. 17, no. 1 (1996): pp. 20–43; and Stewart R. King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-Revolutionary Saint Domingue (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001).

  37. 37.

    David P. Geggus, Slavery, War and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint-Domingue, 1793–1798 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001).

  38. 38.

    Jeremy D. Popkin, You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

  39. 39.

    Malick W. Ghachem, The Old Regime and the Haitian Revolution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

  40. 40.

    For the dominant interpretation of the French abolition movement, see for example Ann Julia Cooper, Slavery and the French Revolutionists (1788–1805) (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellon Press, 1988); Daniel P. Resnick, “The Société des Amis des Noirs and the Abolition of Slavery,” French Historical Studies vol. 7, no. 4 (Autumn, 1972): pp. 558–569; Lawrence C. Jennings, French Anti-Slavery: The Movement for the Abolition of Slavery in France, 1802–1848 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Ruth F. Necheles, The Abbé Grégoire, 1787–1831: The Odyssey of an Egalitarian (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 1971); Edward Derbyshire Seeber, Anti-Slavery Opinion in France during the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century (New York: B. Franklin, 1971); and Marcel Dorigny and Bernard Gainot, La Société des Amis des Noirs, 1788–1799: Contribution à l’histoire de l’abolition de l’esclavage (Paris: Editions UNESCO, 1998).

  41. 41.

    See for example Michael Kraus, “Slavery Reform in the Eighteenth Century: An Aspect of Transatlantic Intellectual Cooperation,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 60, no. 1 (January, 1936): pp. 53–66; Catherine Duprat, “Pour l’amour de l’humanité”: le temps des philanthropes: la philanthropie parisienne des lumières à la monarchie de Juillet (Paris: Editions du CTHS, 1993); Hugh Cunningham, “Introduction,” in Charity, Philanthropy and Reform, from the 1690s to 1850, Edited by Cunningham and Joanna Innes (Palgrave Macmillan, 1998): pp. 1–14; Garrioch, “Making a Better World: Enlightenment and Philanthropy,” in The Enlightenment World, pp. 486–501; and David Lambert and Alan Lester, “Geographies of Colonial Philanthropy,” Progress in Human Geography, vol. 28, no. 3 (2004): pp. 320–341.

  42. 42.

    It is important to note that the French did not use the term abolitionniste during the French and Haitian Revolutions. The term did not emerge until the 1820s and 1830s. During the revolutions, the French used philantrope or philanthrope to identify those seeking the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, as well as equality for free people of color. For visual representations of these trends from 1750 to 1850, see Google Ngram.

  43. 43.

    George Amitheat Breathett, “Religious Missions in Colonial French Saint Domingue” (Ph.D. diss., State University of Iowa, 1954); J. M. Jan, Les Congrégations religieuses à Saint-Domingue, 1681–1793 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1951); R. P. Joseph Janin, La Religion aux Colonies Française sous l’ancien régime (de 1626 à la Révolution) (Paris: D’Auteuil, 1942); and Sue Peabody, “‘A Dangerous Zeal’: Catholic Missions in the French Antilles, 1625–1800” French Historical Studies vol. 25, no. 1 (Winter 2002): pp. 53–90. One exception is Laënnec Hurbon, “Church and Slavery in Saint-Domingue,” The Abolitions of Slavery: From Léger Félicité Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher, 1793, 1794, 1848, Marcel Dorigny, ed. (New York: Berghahn Books, 2003), pp. 55–68.

  44. 44.

    For a brief explanation of the public sphere, see Jürgen Habermas, “The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964),” New German Critique no. 3 (Autumn, 1974). For information on the public sphere in Spanish Latin America, see Victor M. Uribe-Uran, “The Birth of a Public Sphere in Latin America during the Age of Revolution,” Comparative Studies in Society and History vol. 42, no. 2 (April, 2000): pp. 425–457.

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    Erica R. Johnson

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Johnson, E.R. (2018). Introduction. In: Philanthropy and Race in the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76144-2_1

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