Abstract
Siracusa and Nguyen look into the erosion of trust between the United States and the European Community which was reflected mainly in their economic and political disputes. The authors succeed in blending history and analysis, resulting in an insightful, convincing narrative that the Americans and Western Europeans were tied by their own national interests and that their relations were marked by both cooperation and confrontation. Siracusa and Nguyen conclude that the U.S.-European Community relations during the Nixon presidential years had been in a downward course.
The real problem is that some Europeans want to organize unity against the U.S. Perhaps, this is based on the idea that they must oppose someone in order to achieve this unity.
Henry Kissinger, 1973
I don’t think the ’70s were a turning point in European-American relations. I think they were an important pivot in international relations in general. So a lot of decisions had to be made by the Atlantic alliance that didn’t have to be made before.
Henry Kissinger, 2003
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Notes
- 1.
Piccione, 1971U, Confrontation or Cooperation?, Bulletin of European Community, No. 150, viewed on April 1, 2015, <http://aei.pitt.edu/43792/1/A7535.pdf>.
- 2.
Kissinger-Kosciusko-Morizet Meeting, March 22, 1974, viewed January 21, 2015, <http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/trachtenberg/ffus/01080.pdf>.
- 3.
Featherstone, K, & Ginsberg, RH, 1996, The United States and the European Union in 1990s: Partners in Transition, St. Martin Press, New York, p. 91.
- 4.
Schulz, M, & Schwartz, T, 2009, The Strained Alliance: U.S. – European Relations from Nixon to Carter, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 355.
- 5.
Kissinger, HA, 1982, The Troubled Partnership: A Re-appraisal of the Atlantic Alliance, Praeger, New York, p. 4.
- 6.
Ilgen, T, 2006, Hard Power, Soft Power and the Future of the Atlantic Relations, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Burlington, p. 27.
- 7.
Action Memorandum from Helmut Sonnenfeldt and Robert Hormats of the National Security Council Staff to the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Flanigan’s Report to President on U.S.-EC Relations, viewed February 19, 2015, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d104>.
- 8.
Ibid.
- 9.
Dallek, R, 1973, The Dynamics of World Power: Western Europe, Chelsea House, New York, p. 983.
- 10.
Kissinger, H, 1979, White House Years, Little Brown, Boston, pp. 952–953.
- 11.
European Community, July 1969, No. 125, U.S. Community Trade-Some Facts and Figures, viewed on March 21, 2015, <http://aei.pitt.edu/43767/1/A7510.pdf>.
- 12.
Ibid.
- 13.
Ibid.
- 14.
Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs, 1970, The Economic Situation in the Community, viewed December 11, 2014, <http://aei.pitt.edu/47961/1/A7857.pdf>.
- 15.
Ibid.
- 16.
Editorial note, Foreign Relations of the United States (Hereafter cited as FRUS), 1969–1976, Volume III, Foreign Economic Policy, International Monetary Policy, 1969–1072, Document 2, viewed January 19, 2015, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d2>.
- 17.
Ibid.
- 18.
Information Memorandum from the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Initiation of Formal U.S. Consultations with the European Community, viewed February 21, 2015, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d47>.
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
Ibid.
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Ibid.
- 24.
Information Memorandum from the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Foreign Attitudes Toward U.S. Economic Policies, viewed February 21, 2015, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d51#fn2>.
- 25.
Paper Prepared in the Department of State, International Economic Strategy for the 1970’s, viewed December 11, 2014, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d56#fn1>.
- 26.
Ibid.
- 27.
Ibid.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
Memorandum from the Deputy Secretary of State (Irwin) to President Nixon, Fifth Round of U.S.-EC Consultations, Washington, October 7, 1972, viewed December 15, 2014, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d102>.
- 34.
Memorandum from the President’s Assistant for International Economic Affairs (Flanigan) to President Nixon, United States-European Community Relations, Washington, October 11, 1972, viewed December 19, 2014, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d103>.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
Common Market-U.S. Trade Relations, Brussels, August 1971, viewed December 19, 2014, <http://aei.pitt.edu/15833/1/P_30_71.pdf>.
- 37.
Guy Vanhaeverbeke, April 21, 1972, Economic and Trade Relations between the United States and the Enlarging European Community, viewed on December 18, 2014, <http://aei.pitt.edu/12967/1/12967.pdf>.
- 38.
Ibid.
- 39.
Ibid.
- 40.
Smith, M, 1992, The Devil You Know: The United States and a Changing European Community, International Affairs, 68:1, p. 112.
- 41.
Kissinger-Jacques Kosciusko-Morizet (Ambassador of France) meeting, Memorandum of Conversation, The Middle East and the Year of Europe, December 3, 1973, viewed December 25, 2014, <http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/trachtenberg/ffus/00932.pdf>.
- 42.
Nixon, R, 1973, Special Message to the Congress on Energy Policy, viewed November 30, 2014, <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3817>.
- 43.
Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, May 9, 1973, 2:30–3:15 p.m., Meeting on U.S.-Saudi Arabian Economic Relations, viewed November 28, 2014, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
Action Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs (Armstrong) to the Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs (Casey), Washington, April 20, 1973.
- 46.
National Intelligence Analytical Memorandum, Washington, May 11, 1973, International Petroleum Prospects, viewed January 25, 2015, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 47.
See, Quandt, WP, 1993, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967, University of California Press, Washington; Lebow, RN, & Stein, JG, 1994, We All Lost the Cold War, Princeton University Press, Princeton; Stein, K, 1999, Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab-Israeli Peace, Routledge, New York; Parker, R, 2001, ed., The October War: A Retrospective, University Press of Florida, Gainesville; Boyne, WJ, 2002, The Two O’clock War: the 1973 Yom Kippur Conflict and the Airlift That Saved Israel, Thomas Dunne Books, New York; Bickerton, JI, 2012, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Guide for the Perplexed, Continuum, New York; Bickerton, JI, & Klausner, LC, 2015, A History of the Arab Israeli Conflict (7th edition), Pearson, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey; and Bickerton, JI, 2015, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East, Cengage, Melbourne.
- 48.
Kissinger, H, 1979, White House Years, Little Brown and Company Limited, Boston, p. 720.
- 49.
Minutes of Washington Special Actions Group Meeting, Washington, October 15, 1973, 10:08–11:08 a.m., Middle East, viewed on November 24, 2014, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 50.
Ibid.
- 51.
Ibid.
- 52.
Secretary’s Staff Meeting, October 23, 1973, 4.35 pm, viewed on March 2, 2015, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB98/octwar-63.pdf>.
- 53.
Ibid.
- 54.
Kosciusko-Morizet Call on Secretary, viewed on March 12, 2015, <http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB98/octwar-75.pdf>.
- 55.
Ibid.
- 56.
Minutes of Washington Special Actions Group Meeting, Washington, October 15, 1973, 10:08–11:08 a.m., Middle East, viewed on November 24, 2014, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 57.
Sus, I, 1974, “Western Europe and the October War,” Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 65–83.
- 58.
Memorandum Prepared in the Office of Economic Research, Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, October 19, 1973, The Oil Weapon and Its Effects, viewed November 24, 2014, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
Ibid.
- 61.
Memorandum from the Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs (Casey) to Secretary of State Kissinger, Washington, November 3, 1973, viewed on November 24, 2014, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 62.
Ibid.
- 63.
Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, November 20, 1973, 5 p.m., Meeting with Oil Company Executives, viewed on November 30, 2014, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 64.
Kissinger-von Staden (FRG Ambassador) meeting, October 26, 1973, viewed December 27, 2014, <http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB98/octwar-81.pdf>.
- 65.
Kissinger, H, 1982, Years of Upheaval, Little Brown, Boston, p. 716.
- 66.
Kissinger-Jacques Kosciusko-Morizet (Ambassador of France) meeting, Memorandum of Conversation, The Middle East and the Year of Europe, December 3, 1973, viewed December 14, 2014, <http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/trachtenberg/ffus/00932.pdf>.
- 67.
National Intelligence Estimate, Washington, December 5, 1973, The World Oil Crisis: Economic and Political Ramifications for Producers and Consumers, viewed December 25, 2014, <https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36>.
- 68.
Ibid.
- 69.
Kaplan, L, 1991, American Historians and the Atlantic Alliance, Kent State University Press, Kent, p. 100.
- 70.
Hynes, C, 2009, The Year That Never Was: Heath, the Nixon Administration and the Year of Europe, University College Dublin Press, Dublin, p. 230.
- 71.
Kennedy, P, 1988, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Vintage, London, p. 360.
- 72.
Haldeman, HR, 1994, The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, p. 344.
- 73.
See, Lieber, R, 1967, Oil and the Middle East War: Europe in the Energy Crisis, Centre for International Affairs, Harvard, p. 52; Lieber, R, 1979, European and America in the World Energy Crisis, International Affairs, 54:4, pp. 531–545; and Lieber, R, 1980, Energy, Economics and Security in Alliance Perspective, International Security, 4:4, pp. 139–163.
- 74.
National Security Study Memorandum 183, Principles for a Declaration on Atlantic Relations, Washington, May 10, 1973, viewed December 21, 2014, <http://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76ve15p2/pdf/frus1969-76ve15p2.pdf>.
- 75.
Memorandum From the President’s Assistant for National, Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Next Steps in The Year of Europe, Washington, May 11, 1973, viewed December 14, 2014, <http://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76ve15p2/pdf/frus1969-76ve15p2.pdf>.
- 76.
National Security Study Memorandum 183, Principles for a Declaration on Atlantic Relations, Washington, May 10, 1973, viewed December 21, 2014, <http://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76ve15p2/pdf/frus1969-76ve15p2.pdf>.
- 77.
Summary of a Paper Prepared in the Bureau of European and Canadian Affairs and the Policy Planning Staff, document 38, viewed December 11, 2014, <http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve15p2/d38>.
- 78.
Ibid.
- 79.
Ibid.
- 80.
Hanrieder, WF, 1995, Deutschland, Europa, Amerika: Die Aussenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949–1994, Schöningh P. Hanson, Paderborn.
- 81.
Schaetzel, JR, 1975, The Unhinged Alliance: American and the European Community, Harper & Row, New York, p. 143.
- 82.
Malve, PS, 1969, The Future of the Common Agricultural Policy and the Relations between the United States and the European Community, Address by Mr. Pierre S. Malve, Representative for Trade Affairs, Liaison Office of the Commission of the European Community, Washington DC, to the Agricultural Committee of the Chambers of Commerce of Minneapolis and St. Paul and the USDA Club of the Twin Cities. November 24, 1969, viewed October 14, 2014 < http://aei.pitt.edu/12888/>.
- 83.
Ibid.
- 84.
Henry Kissinger 1968, Quoted in Str ömvik, M, 2005, Balancing Global Influence: The “transatlantic conflict syndrome” and the CFSP, viewed on January 15, 2015, <http://aei.pitt.edu/3099/1/EUSA_paper_final.pdf>.
- 85.
Commission of European Communities, Brussels, February 1970, Review of Economic and Trade Relations between the United States and the Community, viewed October 19, 2014, < http://aei.pitt.edu/30052/1/P_8_70.pdf>.
- 86.
Ibid.
- 87.
Ibid.
- 88.
Ibid.
- 89.
Ibid.
- 90.
Ibid.
- 91.
Ibid.
- 92.
Ibid.
- 93.
Ibid.
- 94.
Ibid.
- 95.
Ibid.
- 96.
Guy Vanhaeverbeke 21 October 1971, New Opportunities or Challenges in the European Communities, viewed October 14, 2014, <http://aei.pitt.edu/13800/1/S104.pdf>.
- 97.
Ibid.
- 98.
Ibid.
- 99.
Commission of European Communities, April 1972, Commercial relations between Japan, the United States and the European Community, Information Memo P-20/72, viewed October 14, 2014, <http://aei.pitt.edu/30114/1/P_20_72.pdf>.
- 100.
Solana, J, 2003, The Future of Transatlantic Relations: Reinvention or Reform? viewed on March 12, 2015, <http://www.policy-network.net/uploadedFiles/Publications/Publications/pp2.2%2060-67_SOLANA.pdf>.
- 101.
Devuyst, Y, 2007, American Attitudes on European Political Integration – The Nixon – Kissinger Legacy, IES Working Paper, Institute for European Studies, VUB, Belgium, p. 9.
- 102.
Smith, M, 1978, From the ‘Year of Europe’ to a Year of Carter: Continuing Patterns and Problems in Euro-American Relations, Journal of Common Market Studies, 27:1, p. 178, p. 29.
- 103.
Devuyst, Y, 2007, American Attitudes on European Political Integration – The Nixon – Kissinger Legacy, IES Working Paper, Institute for European Studies, VUB, Belgium, p. 9.
- 104.
Kaiser, K, 1974, Europe and America: A Critical Phase, Foreign Affairs, No. 52, p. 278.
- 105.
Ibid, p. 278.
- 106.
Palmer, J, 1988, Europe without America? The Crisis in Atlantic Relations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 65.
- 107.
Larres, K, 2009, Assertive Supremacy and Enlightened Self-interest: The United States and the ‘Unity of Europe’, AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University, p. 161.
- 108.
Smith, M, 1988, Western Europe and the United States: The Uncertain Alliance, George Allen & Unwin, London, p. 16.
- 109.
Kissinger, H, 1979, White House Years, Little Brown and Company Limited, Boston, p. 86.
- 110.
Weisbrode, K, 2009, The Atlantic Century Four Generations of Extraordinary Diplomats Who Forged America’s Vital Alliance with Europe, Da Capo Press, p. 210.
- 111.
Hahn, WF, 1972, Nuclear Balance in Europe, Foreign Affairs.
- 112.
Kissinger, H, 1979, White House Years, Little Brown and Company Limited, Boston, p. 80.
- 113.
NATO and Détente, NATO Atlantic Treaty Organization.
- 114.
Stebbins, RB, & Adams, EP, 1976, ed., Foreign American Relations, 1973: A Documentary Record, New York, p. 179.
- 115.
Report on the Sixteenth Meeting of Members of Congress and the European Parliament on Congress and the European Parliament: Strengthening the Bonds, Committee on Foreign Affairs (Washington, DC, 1980), p. 4.
- 116.
Kissinger, H, 1979, White House Years, Little Brown and Company Limited, Boston, p. 730.
- 117.
Kissinger-Pompidou Meeting, Memorandum of Conversation, May 18, 1973, viewed October 14, 2014, <http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/trachtenberg/ffus/00728.pdf>.
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Siracusa, J.M., Nguyen, H.T.T. (2018). The US-EC Relations, 1969–1974: Cooperation and Confrontation. In: Richard M. Nixon and European Integration. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75662-2_6
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