Abstract
The most common causes of the gallbladder disease in pregnancy are gallstones and biliary sludge. The incidence of gallbladder disease in pregnancy is 0.05–0.3%, and asymptomatic gallstones occur in 3.5–10% of all pregnancies. The incidence of acute cholecystitis during pregnancy is one of the highest of nonobstetric operative conditions, and 40% of pregnant patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis require cholecystectomy during pregnancy. Natural history and clinical examination are similar as in nonpregnant population. Detailed therapeutic modalities include medical, open surgical, and laparoscopic procedures. 1/1200 pregnancies are complicated by common bile duct stones. Common bile duct stones have been observed in 10–12.5% of pregnant women undergoing cholecystectomy and account for 7% of cases of jaundice in pregnancy. Diagnostic workup and therapeutic management are complex and depend on the status of the mother, severity of the disease, presence of infection, duration of pregnancy, and status of the fetus.
Keywords
- Common Bile Duct (CBD)
- Acute Fatty Liver Of Pregnancy (AFLP)
- Colic Operative Treatment
- Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)
- Choledochal Cyst
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Gerdes MM, Boyden E. The rate of emptying of human gallbladder in pregnancy. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1938;66:145–56.
Mayo W. Innocent gall-stones a myth. JAMA. 1911;56:1021–4.
Grundy SM, Kalser S. Highlights of the meeting on prevention of gallstones. Hepatology. 1987;7:946–51.
Valdivieso V, Covarrubias C, Siegel F, et al. Pregnancy and cholelithiasis: pathogenesis and natural course of gallstone diagnosed in early puerperium. Hepatology. 1993;17:1–4.
Diehl A. Epidemiology and natural history of gallstone disease. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 1991;20:1–19.
Peterson R. Gallstones during pregnancy and the puerperium. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1910;11:1–11.
Ko C. Risk factors for gallstone-related hospitalization during pregnancy and the postpartum. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:2263–8.
McKellar DP, Anderson CT, Boynton C, et al. Cholecystectomy during pregnancy without fetal loss. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1992;174:465–8.
Printen KJ, Ott R. Cholecystectomy during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1978;44:432–4.
Swisher SG, Schmit PJ, Hunt K, et al. Biliary disease during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1994;168:576–81.
Stauffer RA, Adams A, Wygal J, et al. Gallbladder disease in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982;144:661–5.
Basso L, McCollum PT, Dariling M, et al. A study of cholelithiasis during pregnancy and its relationship with age, parity, menarche, breastfeeding, dysmenorrheal, oral contraception and a maternal history of cholelithiasis. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1992;175:41–6.
Chesson RR, Gallup DG, Gibbs R, et al. Ultrasonographic diagnosis of asymptomatic cholelithiasis in pregnancy. J Reprod Med. 1985;30:920–2.
Friley MD, Douglas G. Acute cholecystitis in pregnancy and the puerperium. Am Surg. 1972;38:314–7.
Landers D, Carmona R, Crombleholme W, Lira R. Acute cholecystitis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1987;69:131–3.
Elerding S. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1993;165:625–7.
Kammerer W. Nonobstetric surgery during pregnancy. Med Clin North Am. 1979;63:1157–64.
Morrell DG, Mullins JR, Harrison P. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy in symptomatic patients. Surgery. 1992;112:856–9.
Graham G, Baxi L, Tharakan T. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy: a case series and review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1998;53:566–74.
Ghumman E, Barry M, Grace P. Management of gallstones in pregnancy. Br J Surg. 1997;84:1646–50.
Wishner JD, Zolfaghari D, Wohlgemuth S, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy. A report of 6 cases and review of the literature. Surg Endosc. 1996;10:314–8.
Casey BM, Cox S. Cholecystitis in pregnancy. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 1996;4:303–9.
Honoré L. Cholesterol cholelithiasis in adolescent females. Arch Surg. 1980;115:62–8.
Hansen GC, Duerinckx AJ, Fymat A, et al. Cholelithiasis in the gravid Hispanic population. J Clin Ultrasound. 1994;22:187–91.
Buchanan TA, Xiang AH, Kjos S, et al. Antepartum predictors of the development of type 2 diabetes in Latino women 11-26 months after pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes. Diabetes. 1999;48:2430–6.
Marin R, Gorostidi M, Portal C, et al. Long-term prognosis of hypertension in pregnancy. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2000;19:199–209.
Ko CW, Beresford SA, Schulte S, et al. Incidence, natural history, and risk factors for biliary sludge and stones during pregnancy. Hepatology. 2005;41:359–65.
Lee SP, Maher K, Nicholls J. Origin and fate of biliary sludge. Gastroenterology. 1988;94:170–6.
Bolukbas FF, Bolukbas C, Horoz M, et al. Risk factors associated with gallstone and biliary sludge formation during pregnancy. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21:1150–3.
Cosenza CA, Saffari B, Jabbour N, et al. Surgical management of biliary gallstone disease during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1999;178:545–8.
Maringhini A, Ciambra M, Baccelliere P, et al. Biliary sludge and gallstones in pregnancy: incidence, risk factors and natural history. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:116–20.
Scott L. Gallstone disease and pancreatitis in pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 1992;21:803–15.
Mendez-Sanchez N, Chavez-Tapia NC, Uribe M. Pregnancy and gallbladder disease. Ann Hepatol. 2006;5:227–30.
Thijs C, Knipschild P, Leffers P. Pregnancy and gallstone disease: an empiric demonstration of the importance of specification of risk periods. Am J Epidemiol. 1999;134:186–95.
Barbara L, Sama C, Morselli Labate A, et al. A population study on the prevalence of gallstone disease: the Sirmione study. Hepatology. 1987;7:913–7.
Everhart JE, Khare M, Hill M, et al. Prevalence and ethic differences in gallbladder disease in the United States. Gastroenterology. 1999;117:632–9.
Liu B, Beral V, Balkwill A. Million women study collaborators. Childbearing, breastfeeding, other reproductive factors and the subsequent risk of hospitalization for gallbladder disease. Int J Epidemiol. 2009;38:312–8.
Petrakis N, Wrensch M, Ernster V, et al. Influence of pregnancy and lactation on serum and breast fluid estrogen levels: implications for breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer. 1987;40:587–91.
Khan MK, Jalil MA, Khan S. Pregnancy causing gallstone disease. Mymensingh Med J. 2008;17:S91–6.
Jarvinen HJ, Hastbacka J. Early cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis: a prospective randomized study. Ann Surg. 1980;191:501–5.
Rambal S, Manhas K, Sharma S, et al. Ultrasound evaluation of gallbladder disease in pregnancy. JK Sci. 2001;3:78–83.
Khuroo MS, Mahajan R, Zargar S, et al. Prevalence of biliary tract disease in India: a sonographic study in adult population in Kashmir. Gut. 1989;30:201–5.
Walcher T, Haenle MM, Kron M, et al. Pregnancy is not a risk factor for gallstone disease: results of a randomly selected population sample. World J Gastroenterol. 2005;11:6800–6.
Haffner SM, Diehl AK, Mitchell B, et al. Increased prevalence of clinical gallbladder disease in subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;132:327–35.
Misciagna G, Guerra V, Di Leo A, et al. Insulin and gall stones: a population case control study in southern Italy. Gut. 2000;47:144–7.
Ruhl CE, Everhart J. Association of diabetes, serum insulin, and C-peptide with gallbladder disease. Hepatology. 2000;31:299–303.
Scragg RKR, Clabert GD, Oliver J. Plasma lipids and insulin in gallstone disease: a case-control study. BMJ. 1984;289:521–5.
De Santis A, Attili AF, Ginanni Corradini S, et al. Gallstones and diabetes: a case-control study in a free-living population sample. Hepatology. 1997;25:787–90.
Kono S, Shinchi K, Ikeda N, et al. Prevalence of gallstone disease in relation to smoking, alcohol use, obesity, and glucose tolerance: a study of self- defense officials in Japan. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;136:787–94.
Maurer KR, Knowles JE, Everhart W, et al. Risk factors for gallstone disease in the Hispanic populations of the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;96:487–92.
Ko CW, Beresford SA, Schulte SJ, et al. Insulin resistance and incident gallbladder disease in pregnancy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;6:76–81.
Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman B, et al. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA. 2003;289:76–9.
Thijs C, Knipschild P. Oral contraceptives and the risk of gallbladder disease: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health. 1993;83:1113–20.
Kratzer W, Mason RA, Kachele V. Prevalence of gallstones in sonographic surveys worldwide. J Clin Ultrasound. 1999;27:1–7.
Kratzer W, Kachele V, Mason R, et al. Gallstone prevalence in Germany: the Ulm Gallbladder Stone Study. Dig Dis Sci. 1998;43:1285–91.
Lu SN, Chang WY, Wang L, et al. Risk factors for gallstones among Chinese in Taiwan. A community sonographic survey. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1990;12:542–6.
Brett M, Barker D. The world distribution of gallstones. Int J Epidemiol. 1976;5:335–41.
Friedman GD, Kannel WB, Dawber T. The epidemiology of gallbladder disease: observations in the Framingham Study. J Chronic Dis. 1966;19:273–92.
Van Bodegraven AA, Bohmer CJ, Manoliu R, et al. Gallbladder contents and fasting gallbladder volumes during and after pregnancy. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1998;33:993–7.
Braverman DZ, Johnson ML, Kern F. Effects of pregnancy and contraceptive steroids on gallbladder function. N Engl J Med. 1980;302:362–4.
Kapicioglu S, Gürbüz S, Danalioglu A, et al. Measurement of gallbladder volume with ultrasonography in pregnant women. Can J Gastroenterol. 2000;14:403.
Everson GT, Fennessey P, Kern FJ. Contraceptive steroids alter the steady-state kinetics of bile acids. J Lipid Res. 1988;29:68–76.
Everson GT, McKinley C, Lawson M, et al. Gallbladder function in the human female: effect of the ovulatory cycle, pregnancy, and contraceptive steroids. Gastroenterology. 1982;82:711–9.
Lammert F, Sauerbruch T. Mechanisms of disease: the genetic epidemiology of gallbladder stones. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;2:423–33.
Sungler P, Heinerman PM, Steiner H, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy and interventional endoscopy for gallstone complications during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 2000;14:267–71.
Ryan JP, Pellecchia D. Effect of progesterone pretreatment on guinea pig gallbladder motility in vitro. Gastroenterology. 1982;83:81–3.
Davis M, Ryan J. Influence of progesterone on guinea pig gallbladder motility in vitro. Dig Dis Sci. 1986;31:513–8.
Behar J. Clinical aspects of gallbladder motor function and dysfunction. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 1999;1:91–4.
Kern F Jr, Everson GT, DeMark B, et al. Biliary lipids, bile acids, and gallbladder function in the human female. Effects of pregnancy and the ovulatory cycle. J Clin Invest. 1981;68:1229–42.
Angelin B, Olivecrona H, Reihner E, et al. Hepatic cholesterol metabolism in estrogen-treated men. Gastroenterology. 1992;103:1657–63.
Henriksson P, Einarsson K, Eriksson A, et al. Estrogen-induced gallstone formation in males. Relation to changes in serum and biliary lipids during hormonal treatment of prostatic carcinoma. J Clin Invest. 1989;84:811–6.
Uhler ML, Marks JW, Voigt BJ, et al. Comparison of the impact of transdermal versus oral estrogens on biliary markers of gallstone formation in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:410–4.
Wang HH, Afdhal NH, Wang DQ-H. Overexpression of estrogen receptor alpha increases hepatic cholesterogenesis, leading to biliary hypersecretion in mice. J Lipid Res. 2006;47:778–86.
Everson GT, McKinley C, Kern JF. Mechanisms of gallstone formation in women. Effects of exogenous estrogen (Premarin) and dietary cholesterol on hepatic lipid metabolism. J Clin Invest. 1991;87:237–46.
Coyne MJ, Bonorris GG, Chung A, et al. Estrogen enhances dietary cholesterol induction of saturated bile in the hamster. Gastroenterology. 1978;75:76–9.
Portincasa P, Di Ciaula A, Wang H, et al. Coordinate regulation of gallbladder motor function in the gut-liver axis. Hepatology. 2008;47:2112–26.
Brown MS, Goldstein J. A receptor-mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis. Science. 1986;232:34–47.
Kozarsky KF, Donahee MH, Rigotti A, et al. Overexpression of the HDL receptor SR-BI alters plasma HDL and bile cholesterol levels. Nature. 1997;387:414–7.
Maringhini A, Ciambra M, Baccelliere P, et al. Sludge, stones, and pregnancy. Gastroenterology. 1988;95:1160–1.
Maringhini A, Marceno MP, Lanzarone F, et al. Sludge and stones in gallbladder after pregnancy. J Hepatol. 1987;5:218–23.
Gangwar R, Dayal M, Dwivedi M, et al. Gallbladder disease in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol India. 2011;61:57–61.
Bennion LJ, Ginsberg RL, Gernick MB, et al. Effects of oral contraceptives on the gallbladder bile of normal women. N Engl J Med. 1976;294:189–92.
Grodstein F, Colditz GA, Hunter D, et al. A prospective study of symptomatic gallstones in women: relation with oral contraceptives and other risk factors. Obstet Gynecol. 1994;84:207–14.
Wang HH, Portincasa P, Wang DQ-H. Molecular pathophysiology and physical chemistry of cholesterol gallstones. Front Biosci. 2008;13:401–23.
Wang HH, Liu M, Clegg DJ, et al. New insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying effects of estrogen on cholesterol gallstone formation. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1791:1037–47.
Ness GC, Zhao Z, Wiggins L. Insulin and glucagon modulate hepatic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase activity by affecting immunoreactive protein levels. J Biol Chem. 1994;269:29168–72.
Chait A, Bierman EL, Albers JJ. Low-density lipoprotein receptor activity in cultured human skin fibroblasts. Mechanism of insulin-induced stimulation. J Clin Invest. 1979;64:1309–19.
Petitti DB, Friedman GD, Klatsky A. Association of a history of gallbladder disease with a reduced concentration of high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol. N Engl J Med. 1981;304:1396–8.
Bennion LJ, Grundy SM. Effects of diabetes mellitus on cholesterol metabolism in man. N Engl J Med. 1977;296(24):1365–71.
de Leon MP, Ferenderes R, Carulli N. Bile lipid composition and bile acid pool size in diabetes. Am J Dig Dis. 1978;23:710–6.
Haber GB, Heaton KW. Lipid composition of bile in diabetics and obesity-matched controls. Gut. 1979;20:518–22.
Gielkens HA, Lam WF, Coenraad M, et al. Effect of insulin on basal and cholecystokinin-stimulated gallbladder motility in humans. J Hepatol. 1998;28:595–602.
Hahm JS, Park JY, Park KG, et al. Gallbladder motility in diabetes mellitus using real time ultrasonography. Am J Gastroenterol. 1996;91(0002–9270 (Print)):2391–4.
Graewin SJ, Kiely JM, Lee KH, et al. Nonobese diabetic mice have diminished gallbladder motility and shortened crystal observation time. J Gastrointest Surg. 2004;8:824–30.
Tran KQ, Goldblatt MI, Swartz-Basile DA, et al. Diabetes and hyperlipidemia correlate with gallbladder contractility in leptin-related murine obesity. J Gastrointest Surg. 2003;7:857–63.
Nakeeb A, Comuzzie AG, Al-Azzawi H, Sonnenberg GE, Kissebah AH, Pitt HA. Insulin resistance causes human gallbladder dysmotility. J Gastrointest Surg. 2006;10:940–9.
Stone BG, Gavaler JS, Belle SH, et al. Impairment of gallbladder emptying in diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology. 1988;95:170–6.
Chapman BA, Chapman TM, Frampton CM, et al. Gallbladder volume: comparison of diabetics and controls. Dig Dis Sci. 1998;43:344–8.
Güliter S, Yilmaz S, Karakan T. Evaluation of gallbladder volume and motility in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus patients using real-time ultrasonography. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2003;37:288–91.
Sweeney G, Klip A. Mechanisms and consequences of Na+, K+−pump regulation by insulin and leptin. Cell Mol Biol. 2001;47:363–72.
Graewin SJ, Lee KH, Kiely J, et al. Gallbladder myocytes are short and cholecystokinin-resistant in obese diabetic mice. Surgery. 2004;136:431–6.
Bucala R. Lipid and lipoprotein modification by AGEs: role in atherosclerosis. Exp Physiol. 1997;82:327–37.
Chen Q, Amaral J, Biancani P, et al. Excess membrane cholesterol alters human gallbladder muscle contractility and membrane fluidity. Gastroenterology. 1999;116:678–85.
Davis A, Katz VL, Cox R. Gallbladder disease in pregnancy. J Reprod Med Obstet Gynecologist. 1995;40:759–62.
Augustin G, Majerovic M. Non-obstetrical acute abdomen during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2007;131:4–12.
DeVore G. Acute abdominal pain in the pregnant patient due to pancreatitis, acute appendicitis, cholecystitis, or peptic ulcer disease. Clin Perinatol. 1980;7:349–69.
Goodwin TM. Hyperemesis gravidarum. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am. 2008;35:401–17.
Bottomley C, Bourne T. Management strategies for hyperemesis. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2009;23(4):549–64.
Morali GA, Braverman DZ. Abnormal liver enzymes and ketonuria in hyperemesis gravidarum. A retrospective review of 80 patients. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1990;12:303–5.
Reichert JA, Valle RF. Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome. A laparoscopic approach. JAMA. 1976;236:266–8.
Tietze A. Über eine eigenartige Häufung von Fallen mit Dystrophie der Rippenknorpel. Kln Wochenschr. 1921;58:829–31.
van den Broe NR, Letsky EA. Pregnancy and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. BJOG. 2001;108:1164–7.
Deutchman ME, Connor P, Hahn RG, et al. Maternal gallbladder assessment during obstetric ultrasound: results, significance, and technique. J Fam Pract. 1994;39:33–7.
Chang T, Lepanto L. Ultrasonography in the emergency setting. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1992;10:1–25.
Loughlin KR. Urologic radiology during pregnancy. Urol Clin North Am. 2007;34:23–6.
Hepburn IS. Pregnancy-associated liver disorders. Dig Dis Sci. 2008;53:2334–58.
Paspulati R. Imaging of the nonobstetric acute abdomen during pregnancy and puerperium. Contep Diagn Radiol. 2008;31:1–6.
Oto A, Ernst R, Ghulmiyyah L, et al. The role of MR cholangiopancreatography in the evaluation of pregnant patients with acute pancreaticobiliary disease. Br J Radiol. 2009;82:279–85.
Thomsen H. European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR) guidelines on the safe use of iodinated contrast media. Eur J Radiol. 2006;60:307–13.
Ali MEA, Al-Shehri MY, Zaki ZMS, et al. Acute abdomen in pregnancy. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 1998;62:31–6.
Ploger R. Die Gallegsteinkrankheit in ihrer Beziehung zur Schwangerschaft und zum Wochenbett. Beitr Klin Chir. 1910;69:275–95.
Green R. Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis associated with pregnancy. Boston Med Surg J. 1913;160:679–81.
Branson L. Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis in their relation to pregnancy. JAMA. 1911;57:1690–4.
Graham J. Gallstones complicating pregnancy and the puerperium. South Med J. 1914;7:389–92.
Grube K. Ueber die Bedeutung der Schwangerschaft für die Entstehung der Gallensteinkrankheit. Veroffentl d balneol Gesellsch. 1912;23:13–6.
Hoffbauer J. Über Relationen weiblicher Generatiensvorgange zur Klinik der Cholelithiasis. Med Klin. 1909;5:239–41.
M’Nee J. Recent work on the etiology of gallstones. Glasgow Med J. 1914;81:106–15.
http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr &GRid=55489857.
Lydon-Rochelle M, Holt VL, Martin DP, Easterling T. Association between method of delivery and maternal rehospitalization. JAMA. 2000;283:2411–6.
Lu EJ, Curet MJ, El-Sayed YY, et al. Medical versus surgical management of biliary tract disease in pregnancy. Am J Surg. 2004;188:755–9.
Dixon NP, Faddis DM, Silberman H. Aggressive management of cholecystitis during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1987;154:292–4.
Curet MJ, Allen D, Josloff RK, et al. Laparoscopy during pregnancy. Arch Surg. 1996;131:546–50.
Glasgow RE, Visser BC, Harris HW, et al. Changing management of gallstone disease during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 1998;12:241–6.
Muench J, Albrink M, Serafini F, et al. Delay in treatment of biliary disease during pregnancy increases morbidity and can be avoided with safe laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Am Surg. 2001;67:539–42.
Visser BC, Glasgow RE, Mulvihill KK, et al. Safety and timing of nonobstetric abdominal surgery in pregnancy. Dig Surg. 2001;18:409–17.
Othman MO, Stone E, Hashimi M, et al. Conservative management of cholelithiasis and its complications in pregnancy is associated with recurrent symptoms and more emergency department visits. Gastrointest Endosc. 2012;76:564–9.
Lockwood C, Stiller RJ, Bolognese R. Maternal total parenteral nutrition in chronic cholecystitis. A case report. J Reprod Med. 1987;32:785–8.
Levine MG, Esser D. Total parenteral nutrition for the treatment of severe hyperemesis gravidarum: maternal nutritional effects and fetal outcome. Obstet Gynecol. 1988;72:102–7.
Ogura JM, Francois KE, Perlow JH, et al. Complications associated with peripherally inserted central catheter use during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188:1223.
Russo-Stieglitz KE, Levine AB, Wagner BA, et al. Pregnancy outcome in patients requiring parenteral nutrition. J Matern Fetal Med. 1999;8:164–7.
Ward A, Brogden R, Heel R, et al. Ursodeoxycholic acid: a review of its pharmacologic properties and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs. 27:95–131.
Allmendinger N, Hallisey M, Ohki S, et al. Percutaneous cholecystostomy treatment of acute cholecystitis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;86:653.
Takada T, Strasberg SM, Solomkin J, et al. Updated Tokyo Guidelines for the management of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2013;20:1–7.
Chandler CF, Lane JS, Ferguson P, et al. Prospective evaluation of early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for the treatment of acute cholecystitis. Am Surg. 2000;66:896–900.
Kiviluoto T, Siren J, Luukkonen P, et al. Randomized trial of laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy for acute and gangrenous cholecystitis. Lancet. 1998;351:321–5.
Hill LM, Johnson CE, Lee R. Cholecystectomy in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1975;46:291–3.
Hamilton BE, Martin JA, Osterman MJ, et al. Births: final data for 2014. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2015;64:1–64.
Chiappetta Porras LT, Napoli ED, Canullan CM, et al. Minimally invasive management of acute biliary tract disease during pregnancy. HPB Surg. 2009;2009:829020.
Al-Akeely MH. Management of complicated gallstone disease during pregnancy. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2003;9:135–8.
Jelin EB, Smink DS, Vernon AH, et al. Management of biliary tract disease during pregnancy: a decision analysis. Surg Endosc. 2008;22:54–60.
Elamin AM, Yahia Al-Shehri M, Abu-Eshy S, et al. Is surgical intervention in acute cholecystitis in pregnancy justified? J Obstet Gynaecol. 1997;17:435–8.
Veerappan A, Gawron AJ, Soper NJ, et al. Delaying cholecystectomy for complicated gallstone disease in pregnancy is associated with recurrent postpartum symptoms. J Gastrointest Surg. 2013;17:1953–9.
Dhupar R, Smaldone GM, Hamad G. Is there a benefit to delaying cholecystectomy for symptomatic gallbladder disease during pregnancy? Surg Endosc. 2010;24:108–12.
Machado NO, Machado L. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the third trimester of pregnancy: report of 3 cases. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2009;19:439–41.
Meshikhes A. Successful laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the third trimester of pregnancy. Saudi Med J. 2008;29:291–2.
Affleck D, Handrahan D, Egger M, et al. The laparoscopic management of appendicitis and cholelithiasis during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1999;178:523–9.
Barone JE, Bears S, Chen S, et al. Outcome study of cholecystectomy during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1999;177:232–6.
Lanzafame R. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy. Surgery. 1995;114:627–33.
Uen YH, Liang AI, Lee HH. Gasless laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy. Formosan J Surg. 2001;34:126–31.
Iafrati MD, Yarnell R, Schwaitzberg S. Gasless laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy. J Laparoendosc Surg. 1995;5:127–30.
Kuy SR, Roman SA, Desai R, et al. Outcomes following cholecystectomy in pregnant and nonpregnant women. Surgery. 2009;146:358–66.
Paramanathan A, Walsh SZ, Zhou J, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy: an Australian retrospective cohort study. Int J Surg. 2015;18:220–3.
Hart RO, Tamadon A, Fitzgibbons RJ Jr, et al. laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy. Surg Laparosc Endosc. 1993;3:13–6.
Chiedozi LC, Al Hady F. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for cholecystectomy in diabetes. Ann Saudi Med. 1993;13:498–500.
Pezzolla A, Lattarulo S, Disabato M, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis in pregnancy: a case report in woman with situs viscerum inversus. Recenti Prog Med. 2012;103(12):578–80.
Augustin G, Vrcic H, Zupancic B. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy due to acute calculous cholecystitis in 16 weeks’ in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer pregnancy: report of the first case. J Postgrad Med. 2012;58:298–300.
Petrozza JC, Mastrobattista JM, Monga M. Gallbladder perforation in pregnancy. Am J Perinatol. 1995;12:339–41.
Stone W. Perforation of the gallbladder occurring in late stage of pregnancy. JAMA. 1937;109:1093.
Roslyn J, Busuttil R. Perforation of the gallbladder: a frequently mismanaged condition. Ann Surg. 1954;140:266–7.
Hill N. Spontaneous perforation of the common bile duct. Br J Surg. 1981;68:661–2.
Freeland J. Rupture of the hepatic duct. Lancet. 1882;119:731–2.
Hogan J. Spontaneous rupture of the common bile duct during pregnancy. J Med Assoc Georg. 1957;46:45–6.
Dabbas N, Abdelaziz M, Hamdan K, et al. Gallstone-induced perforation of the common bile duct in pregnancy. HPB Surg. 2008;2008:174202.
Lemay M, Granger L, Verschelden G, et al. Spontaneous rupture of the common bile duct during pregnancy. Can Med Assoc J. 1980;122:14–5.
McGrath BA, Singh M, Singh T, Maguire S. Spontaneous common bile duct rupture in pregnancy. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2005;14:172–4.
O’Neill A, O’Sullivan MJ, McDermott E. Spontaneous common bile duct rupture in a pregnant female – a rare cause of peritonitis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2009;142:81–7.
Piotrowski JJ, Van Stiegmann G, Liechty R. Spontaneous bile duct rupture in pregnancy. HPB Surg. 1990;2:205–9.
Rege SA, Lambe S, Sethi H, et al. Spontaneous common bile duct perforation in adult: a case report and review. Int Surg. 2002;87:81–2.
Talwar N, Andley M, Ravi B, et al. Spontaneous biliary tract perforations: an unusual cause of peritonitis in pregnancy. Report of two cases and review of literature. World J Emerg Surg. 2006;1:21.
Haggard WG, Johnson PN, Baron T. Endoscopic management of spontaneous bile duct perforation and bile peritonitis complicating term pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol. 1995;90:2054–5.
Pucci RO, Seed R. Case report of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the third trimester of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;165:401–2.
Abuabara S, Gross G, Sirinek K. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy is safe for both mother and fetus. J Gastrointest Surg. 1997;1:48–52.
Amos JD, Schorr SJ, Norman P, et al. Laparoscopic surgery during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1996;171:435–7.
Jamal A, Gorski TF, Nguyen HQ, Davis R. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy. Surg Rounds. 1997;20:408–15.
Rollins M, Chan K, Price R. Laparoscopy for appendicitis and cholelithiasis during pregnancy: a new standard of care. Surg Endosc. 2004;18:237–41.
Pearl J, Price R, Richardson W, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and use of laparoscopy for surgical problems during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 2011;25:3479–92.
Upadhyay A, Stanten S, Kazantsev G, et al. Laparoscopic management of a nonobstetric emergency in the third trimester of pregnancy. Surg Endosc Other Interv Tech. 2007;21:1344–8.
Holthausen UH, Mettler L, Troidl H. Pregnancy: a contraindication? World J Surg. 1999;23:856–62.
Friedman JD, Ramsey PS, Ramin K, et al. Pnuemoamnion and pregnancy loss after second trimester laparoscopic surgery. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;99:512–3.
Eichenberg BJ, Vanderlinden J, Miguel C, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the third trimester of pregnancy. Am Surg. 1996;62:874–7.
Halkic N, Tempia-Caliera AA, Ksontini R, et al. Laparoscopic management of appendicitis and symptomatic cholelithiasis during pregnancy. Langenbeck's Arch Surg. 2006;391:467–71.
NIH Consensus Development Panel on Gallstones and Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy. Gallstones and laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surg Endosc. 1993;7:271–9.
Fatum M, Rojansky N. Laparoscopic surgery during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2001;56:50–9.
SAGES guidelines for laparoscopic surgery during pregnancy. SAGES publication 0023.
Lemaire BMD, Vanerp W. Laparoscopic surgery during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 1997;11:15–8.
Behera R, Salgaonkar H, Bhandarkar D, et al. Laparoendoscopic single-site cholecystectomy in a pregnant patient. J Minim Access Surg. 2013;9.
Diettrich NA, Kaplan G. Surgical considerations in the contemporary management of biliary tract disease in the postpartum period. Am J Surg. 1998;176(3):251.
Buser K. Laparoscopic surgery in the pregnant patient – one surgeon’s experience in a small rural hospital. JSLS. 2002;6:121–4.
Palanivelu C, Rangarajan M, Senthilkumaran S, et al. Safety and efficacy of laparoscopic surgery in pregnancy: experience of a single institution. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 2007;17:186–90.
Date RS, Kaushal M, Ramesh A. A review of the management of gallstone disease and its complications in pregnancy. Am J Surg. 2008;196:599–608.
Jackson H, Granger S, Price S, et al. Diagnosis and laparoscopic treatment of surgical disease during pregnancy: an evidence-based review. Surg Endosc. 2008;22:1917–27.
Peterson R. Gallstones during pregnancy. Trans Am Gynecol Soc. 1910;35:84–120.
Greene J, Rogers A, Rubin L. Fetal loss after cholecystectomy during pregnancy. CMAJ. 1963;88:576–7.
King A. Threatened and repeated abortion: present status of therapy. Obstet Gynecol. 1953;1:104.
Chung JC, Cho GS, Shin E, et al. Clinical outcomes compared between laparoscopic and open appendectomy in pregnant women. Can J Surg. 2013;56:341–6.
McKay AJ, O’Neill J, Imrie C. Pancreatitis pregnancy and gallstones. BJOG. 1980;87:47–50.
Glenn F, McSherry C. Gallstones and pregnancy among 300 young women treated with cholecystectomy. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1968;127:1067–72.
Swisher SG, Hunt KK, Schmit P, et al. Management of pancreatitis complicating pregnancy. Am Surg. 1994;60:759–62.
Ramin KD, Ramin SM, Richey SD, et al. Acute pancreatitis in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;173:187–91.
Geenes V, Williamson C. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15:2049–66.
Reyes H, Gonzalez MC, Ribalta J, et al. Prevalence of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in Chile. Ann Intern Med. 1978;88:487–93.
Rioseco AJ, Ivankovic MB, Manzur A, et al. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: a retrospective case-control study of perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;170:890–5.
Laifer SA, Stiller RJ, Siddiqui D, et al. Ursodeoxycholic acid for the treatment of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. J Matern Fetal Med. 2001;10:131–5.
Lee RH, Goodwin TM, Greenspoon J, Incerpi M. The prevalence of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in a primarily Latina Los Angeles population. J Perinatol. 2006;26:527–32.
Gonzalez MC, Reyes H, Arrese M, et al. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in twin pregnancies. J Hepatol. 1989;9:84–90.
Glantz A, Marschall HU, Mattsson L. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: relationships between bile acid levels and fetal complication rates. Hepatology. 2004;40:467–74.
Reyes H. Review: Intrahepatic cholestasis. A puzzling disorder of pregnancy. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1997;12:211–6.
Brites D, Rodrigues CM, Oliveira N, et al. Correction of maternal serum BA profile during ursodeoxycholic acid therapy in cholestasis of pregnancy. J Hepatol. 1998;28:91–8.
Borum M. Hepatobiliary diseases in women. Med Clin North Am. 1998;82:51–75.
Reyes H. The spectrum of liver and gastrointestinal disease seen in cholestasis of pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 1992;21:905–21.
Bacq Y, Sapey T, Brechot MC, et al. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: a French prospective study. Hepatology. 1997;26:358–64.
Egerman RS, Riely C. Predicting fetal outcome in intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: is the bile acid level sufficient? Hepatology. 2004;40:287–8.
Dann AT, Kenyon AP, Seed P, et al. S-transferase and liver function in intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy and pruritus gravidarum. Hepatology. 2004;40:1406–14.
Goulis DG, Walker IA, de Swiet M, et al. Preeclampsia with abnormal liver function tests is associated with cholestasis in a subgroup of cases. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2004;23:19–27.
Vanjak D, Moreau R, Roche-Sicot J, et al. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. An unusual but favorable association? Gastroenterology. 1991;100:1123–5.
Rolfes DB, Ishak K. Liver disease in pregnancy. Histopathology. 1986;10:555–70.
Sheehan H. The pathology of acute yellow atrophy and delayed chloroform poisoning. J Obstet Gynaecol. 1940;47:49–62.
Castro MA, Fassett MJ, Reynolds T, et al. Reversible peripartum liver failure: a new perspective on the diagnosis, treatment, and cause of acute fatty liver of pregnancy, based on 28 consecutive cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181:389–95.
Knight M, Nelson-Piercy C, Kurinczuk J, et al. A prospective national study of acute fatty liver of pregnancy in the UK. Gut. 2008;57:951–6.
Malone FD, Kaufman GE, Chelmow D, et al. Maternal morbidity associated with triplet pregnancy. Am J Perinatol. 1998;15:73–7.
Bacq Y. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Semin Perinatol. 1998;22:134–40.
Bacq Y, Constans T, Body G, et al. La stéatose hépatique aiguë gravidique. Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod. 1986;15:851–61.
Riely C. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Semin Liver Dis. 1987;7:47–54.
Castro MA, Ouzounian JG, Colletti P, et al. Radiologic studies in acute fatty liver of pregnancy. A review of the literature and 19 new cases. J Reprod Med. 1996;41:839–43.
Rolfes DB, Ishak K. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy: a clinicopathologic study of 35 cases. Hepatology. 1985;5:1149–58.
Bacq Y, Riely C. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy: the hepatologist’s view. Gastroenterologist. 1993;1:257–64.
Tuech JJ, Binelli C, Aube C, et al. Management of choledocholithiasis during pregnancy by magnetic resonance cholangiography and laparoscopic common bile duct stone extraction. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2000;10:323.
Bagci S, Tuzun A, Erdil A, et al. Treatment of choledocholithiasis in pregnancy: a case report. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2003;267:239–41.
Baillie J, Cairns SR, Putman WS, et al. Endoscopic management of choledocholithiasis during pregnancy. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1990;171:1–4.
Working Party of the British Society of Gastroenterology, Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland, Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Association of Upper GI Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland. UK guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis. Gut. 2005;54:iii1–9.
Rathnapalan S, Bona N, Chandra K, et al. Physicians perception of teratogenic risk associated with radiography and CT during early pregnancy. Am J Radiol. 2004;182:1107–9.
Hoffman BJ, Cunningham J. Radiation exposure to the pregnant patient during ERCP. Gastroenterology. 1992;38:A253.
Kahaleh M, Hartwell GD, Arseneau K, et al. Safety and efficacy of ERCP in pregnancy. Gastrointest Endosc. 2004;60:287–92.
Tham TC, Vandervoort J, Wong R, et al. Safety of ERCP during pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98:308–11.
Guidelines for Diagnostic Imaging during Pregnancy American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 299. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;104:647–51.
Zhou Y, Zhang X, Zhang X, et al. ERCP in acute cholangitis during third trimester of pregnancy. Hepato-Gastroenterology. 2013;60:981–4.
Simmons DC, Tarnasky PR, Rivera-Alsina M, et al. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in pregnancy without the use of radiation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:1467–9.
Axelrad A, Fleischer D, Strack L, et al. Performance of ERCP for symptomatic choledocholithiasis during pregnancy: techniques to increase safety and improve patient management. Am J Gastroenterol. 1994;89:109–12.
Llach J, Bordas JM, Gines A, et al. Endoscopic sphincterotomy in pregnancy. Endoscopy. 1997;29:52–3.
Sharma SS, Maharshi S. Two stage endoscopic approach for management of choledocholithiasis during pregnancy. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis. 2008;17:183–5.
Barthel JS, Chowdhury T, Miedema B. Endoscopic sphincterotomy for the treatment of gallstone pancreatitis during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 1998;12:394–9.
Cappell M. Sedation and analgesia for gastrointestinal endoscopy during pregnancy. Gastrointest Endosc Clin North Am. 2006;16:1–31.
Gawrychowski J, Drózdz M, Olejek A, et al. Treatment of mild acute pancreatitis during pregnancy using retrograde cholangiography and endoscopic sphincterotomy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2007;99:147–9.
Gupta R, Tandan M, Lakhtakia S, et al. Safety of therapeutic ERCP in pregnancy-an Indian experience. Indian J Gastroenterol. 2005;24:161–3.
Tang SJ, Mayo MJ, Rodriguez-Frias E, et al. Safety and utility of ERCP during pregnancy. Gastrointest Endosc. 2009;69:453–61.
Jamidar PA, Beck GJ, Hoffman B, et al. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol. 1995;90:1263–7.
Lee YT, Chan FK, Leung W, et al. Comparison of EUS and ERCP in the investigation with suspected biliary obstruction caused by choledocholithiasis: a randomized study. Gastrointest Endosc. 2008;67:660–8.
Pitchumoni CS, Yegneswaran B. Acute pancreatitis in pregnancy. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;5641–6.
Roumieu F, Ponchon T, Audra P, et al. Acute pancreatitis in pregnancy: place of the different explorations (magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasonography) and their therapeutic consequences. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2008;140:141–2.
Chong VH, Jalihal A. Endoscopic management of biliary disorders during pregnancy. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2010;9:180–5.
Girotra M, Jani N. Role of endoscopic ultrasound/SpyScope in diagnosis and treatment of choledocholithiasis in pregnancy. World J Gastroenterol. 2010;16:3601–2.
Shelton J, Linder JD, Rivera-Alsina MT, et al. Commitment confirmation, and clearance: new techniques for nonradiation ERCP during pregnancy (with videos). Gastrointest Endosc. 2008;67:364–8.
Uradomo L, Pandolfe F, Aragon G, et al. SpyGlass cholangioscopy for management of choledocholithiasis during pregnancy. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2011;10:107.
Polydorou A, Karapanos K, Vezakis A, et al. A multimodal approach to acute biliary pancreatitis during pregnancy: a case series. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2012;22:429–32.
de Vries A, Donkervoort SC, van Geloven AP, et al. Conversion rate of laparoscopic cholecystectomy after endoscopic retrograde cholangiography in the treatment of choledocholithiasis: does the time interval matter? Surg Endosc. 2005;19:996–1001.
Patel SG, Veverka T. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy. Curr Surg. 2002;59:74–8.
Reyes-Tineo R. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy. Bol Asoc Med P R. 1997;89:9–11.
Chan CH, Enns R. ERCP in the management of choledocholithiasis in pregnancy. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2012;14:504–10.
Vater A. Dissertation in auguralis medica, poes diss. Qua Scirris viscerum dissert, C.S. Ezlerus. Vol 70. Edinburgh; 1723.
Douglas A. A case of dilatation of the common bile duct. Mon. J Med Sci. 1852;14:97–100.
Seyffert R. Zur Pathologie der Gallengänge, Zyste des Ductus choledochus, operativ behandelt. Greifswald; 1888.
Friend W. Rupture of choledochal cyst during confinement. Br J Surg. 1958;46:155–7.
Saunders P, Jackson B. Rupture of choledochus cyst in pregnancy. BMJ. 1969;3:573–4.
Louw J. Choledochal cysts. S Afr J Surg. 1975;13:199–205.
O’Neill JA, Templeton JMJR, Schnaufer L, et al. Recent experience with choledochal cyst. Ann Surg. 1987;205:533–40.
Jones PG, Smith ED, Clake AM, et al. Choledochal cysts: experience with radical excision. J Pediatr Surg. 1971;6:112–20.
Chesterman J. Choledochus cyst complicating pregnancy and the puerperium. BJOG. 1944:512–8.
Spitz L. Choledochal cyst. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1978;147:444–52.
Fleming R. Cyst of the common bile duct in a case of pregnancy of 8 months causing pyloric obstruction. S Afr Med J. 1947;21:778–82.
Beattie GJ, Keay S, Muir BB, et al. Acute pancreatitis with pseudocyst formation complicating pregnancy in a patient with a co-existent choledochal cyst. BJOG. 1993;100:957–9.
Diamond T, Panesar K. Biliary peritonitis due to choledochal cyst presenting in late pregnancy. Ulster Med J. 1986;55:190–2.
Pai Dhungat PB, Pai Dhungat N, Gothil S. Choledochal cyst in twin gestation pregnancy. Bombay Hosp J. 2010;52:436–7.
Binstock M, Sondak VK, Herd J. Adenocarcinoma in a choledochal cyst during pregnancy: a case report and guidelines for management. Surgery. 1988;103:588–92.
Aszodi A, Ponsky JL, Kiwi R, et al. Choledochal cyst in a pregnancy adult. Am J Gastroenterol. 1990;85:1048–9.
Joseph P, Raju RS, Vyas FL, et al. Spontaneous perforation of choledochal cyst and hyperemesis gravidarum. Trop Gastroenterol. 2008;29:46–7.
Nassar AH, Chakhtoura N, Martin D, et al. Choledochal cysts diagnosed in pregnancy: a case report and review of treatment options. J Matern Fetal Med. 2001;10:363.
Taylor TV, Brigg JK, Russell JG, Torrance B. Choledochal cyst of pregnancy. J R Coll Surg Edinb. 1977;22:424–7.
Russell JG, Taylor V, Torrance B. Ultrasonic diagnosis of choledochal cyst in pregnancy. Br J Radiol. 1976;49:425–6.
Angel JL, Knuppel RA, Trabin J. Choledochal cyst complicating a twin gestation. South Med J. 1985;78:463–6.
Grotz RL, MacDermid RG, Orlando R, et al. Choledochal cyst diagnosed in pregnancy. Conn Med. 1991;55:262–6.
Nasu K, Matsuki S, Kawano Y, et al. Choledochal cyst diagnosed and conservatively treated during pregnancy. Am J Perinatol. 2004;21:463–8.
Kaponis A, Vitsas C, Decavalas G. Conservative management of a choledochal cyst during a twin pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2015;35:646–7.
Wong AM, Cheung YC, Liu Y, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of choledochal cyst using magnetic resonance imaging: a case report. World J Gastroenterol. 2005;11:5082–3.
Anderl P, Hetzenauer A. Pregnancy complications caused by choledochus cyst. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 1985;45:731–4.
Benchellal ZA, Simon E, d’Altéroche L, et al. Choledochal cyst rupture during pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin Biol. 2009;33:390–1.
Pal S, Simon EG, Koshy A, et al. Spontaneous choledochal cyst rupture in pregnancy with concomitant chronic pancreatitis. Indian J Gastroenterol. 2013;32:127–9.
Purohit R, Singh A, Kant K. Spontaneous rupture of choledochal cyst during pregnancy: a case report. J Dent Med Sci. 2015;14:51–3.
Conway WC, Campos GM, Gagandeep S. Choledochal cyst during pregnancy: the patient’s first pregnancy was complicated by a congenital anomaly. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;200:588.e1–2.
Prochazka R, Ojeda M, Cedron H, et al. Choledochal cyst in pregnancy and puerperium: report on two cases and review of literature. Rev Gastroenterol Peru. 2007;27:79–84.
Wu YK, Yj C, Lee Y, et al. Choledochal cyst in pregnancy – report of two cases. Tzu Chi Med J. 2005;17:261–3.
Hewitt PM, JEJ K, Bornman PC, et al. Choledochal cyst in pregnancy: a therapeutic dilemma. J Am Coll Surg. 1995;181(3):237–40.
Wig JD, Goenka MK, Chawla YK, et al. Cholangitis secondary to choledochal cyst in pregnancy and puerperium. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1997;25:489–91.
Oncü M, Alhan E, Calik A. Rupture of a choledochal cyst during postpartum period. Z Gastroenterol. 1990;28:396–8.
Wu DQ, Zheng LX, Wang Q, et al. Choledochal cysts in pregnancy: case management and literature review. World J Gastroenterol. 2004;10:3065–9.
Gmijovic D, Stojanovic M, Radojkovic M. Complicated choledochal cysts in pregnancy. Facta Univ. 2006;13:90–3.
Kitahama A, Harkness SO, Moynihan PO, et al. A large choledochal cyst with impending rupture post partum. Br J Surg. 1984;71:156.
Fok WY, Yip SK, Leung T, et al. Large choledochal cyst present through 2 pregnancies. A case report. J Reprod Med. 2003;48:482–4.
Shanley DJ, Gagliardi JA, Daum-Kowalski R. Choledochal cyst complicating pregnancy: antepartum diagnosis with MRI. Abdom Imaging. 1994;19:61–3.
Martínez-Ordaz JL, Morales-Camacho MY, Centellas-Hinojosa S, et al. Quiste de colédoco y embarazo. Reporte de 3 casos y revisión de la bibliografía. Cir Cir. 2016;84:144–53.
Nagorney DM, McIlrath DC, Adson M. Choledochal cysts in adults: clinical management. Surgery. 1984;96:656–63.
Todani T, Watanabe Y, Toki A, et al. Reoperation for congenital choledochal cyst. Ann Surg. 1988;207:142–7.
Büyükyavuz Ý, Ekinci S, Çiftçi A, et al. A retrospective study of choledochal cyst: clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment. Turk J Pediatr. 2003;45:321–5.
Singh H, Gupta R, Dhaliwal L, et al. Spontaneous choledochal cyst perforation in pregnancy with co-existent chronic pancreatitis. BMJ Case Rep. 2014;2014
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Augustin, G. (2018). Acute Biliary Tract Disease. In: Acute Abdomen During Pregnancy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72995-4_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72995-4_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-72994-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-72995-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)