Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Stratified Systems

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms

Part of the book series: Ecological Studies ((ECOLSTUD,volume 232))

Abstract

This chapter synthesizes progress achieved in the understanding of the dynamics of harmful algal blooms (HABs) under the auspices of the GEOHAB Core Research Project HABs in Stratified Systems. A variety of aquatic environments are considered, where small-scale hydrographic features may be encountered in stratified water columns. A special emphasis is put on subsurface thin-layer structures, which, thanks to advances in fine-resolution sampling and observation methods, have dramatically changed our comprehension of HAB events. The importance of small-scale physical–biological interactions as well as chemically driven relationships between HAB species and components of the food web are also key topics addressed. Research priorities are identified and the potential offered by new approaches and advanced instrumentation is discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alldredge AL, Cowles TJ, MacIntyre S et al (2002) Occurrence and mechanism of formation of a dramatic thin layer of marine snow in a shallow Pacific fjord. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 233:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berdalet E, Llaveria G, Simó R (2011) Modulation of small-scale turbulence on methylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) concentration in an Alexandrium minutum (Dinophyceae) culture: link with toxin production. Harmful Algae 10:88–95

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berdalet E, McManus MA, Ross ON et al (2014) Understanding harmful algae in stratified systems: review of progress and future directions. Deep Sea Res Part II 101:4–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berdalet E, Montresor M, Reguera B (2017a) Harmful algal blooms in fjords, coastal embayments, and stratified systems: recent progress and future research. Oceanography 30(1):46–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berdalet E, Tester PA, Chinain M (2017b) Harmful algal blooms in benthic systems: recent progress and future research. Oceanography 30(1):36–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blossom HE, Daugbjerg N, Hansen PJ (2012) Toxic mucus traps: a novel mechanism that mediates prey uptake in the mixotrophic dinoflagellae Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax. Harmful Algae 17:40–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brosnahan ML, Velo-Suárez L, Ralston DK (2015) Rapid growth and concerted sexual transitions by a bloom of the harmful dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense (Dinophyceae). Limnol Oceanogr 60:2059–2078

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Calleja ML, Duarte CM, Prairie YT et al (2009) Evidence for surface organic matter modulation of air-sea CO2 gas exchange. Biogeosciences 6:1105–1114

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell L, Olson RJ, Sosik HM et al (2010) First harmful Dinophysis (Dinophyceae, Dinophysiales) bloom in the U.S. revealed by automated imaging flow cytometry. J Phycol 46:66–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson DJ (1987) Viscosity of sea-surface slicks. Nature 329:823–825

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheriton OM, McManus MA, Stacey MT et al (2009) Physical and biological controls on the maintenance and dissipation of a thin phytoplankton layer. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 378:55–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson K, Miller P, Wilding TA et al (2009) A large and prolonged bloom of Karenia mikimotoi in Scottish waters in 2006. Harmful Algae 8:349–361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekshenieks MM, Donaghay PL, Sullivan JM et al (2001) Temporal and spatial occurrence of thin phytoplankton layers in relation to physical processes. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 223:61–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Díaz PA, Ruiz-Villarreal M, Velo-Suárez L et al (2014) Tidal and wind-event variability and the distribution of two groups of Pseudo-nitzschia species in an upwelling-influenced ría. Deep Sea Res Part II 101:163–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donaghay PL, Osborn TR (1997) Toward a theory of biological-physical control of harmful algal bloom dynamics and impacts. Limnol Oceanogr 42:1283–1296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Escalera L, Pazos Y, Doval MD et al (2012) A comparison of integrated and discrete depth sampling for monitoring toxic species of Dinophysis. Mar Pollut Bull 64:106–113

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estrada M, Berdalet E (1998) Effects of turbulence on phytoplankton. In: Anderson DM, Cembella AD, Halleagraaf GM (eds) Physiological ecology of harmful algal blooms, NATO ASI series G: ecological series, vol 41. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp 601–618

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrell H, Gentien P, Fernand L et al (2012) Scales characterising a high density thin layer of Dinophysis acuta Ehrenberg and its transport within a coastal jet. Harmful Algae 15:36–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farrell H, Gentien P, Fernand L et al (2014) Vertical and horizontal controls of a haptophyte thin layer in the Bay of Biscay, France. Deep Sea Res Part II 101:80–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer AD (2017) Alexandrium catenella cyst dynamics in a coastal embayment: temperature dependence of dormancy, germination, and bloom initiation. PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 165pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Flynn KJ (2008) Attack is not the best form of defense: lessons from harmful algal bloom dynamics. Harmful Algae 8:129–139

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foloni-Neto H, Lueck R, Mabuchi Y et al (2014) A new quasi-horizontal glider to measure biophysical microstructure. J Atmos Oceanic Technol 31:2278–2293. https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-13-00240.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gentien P (1998) Bloom dynamics and ecophysiology of the Gymnodinium mikimotoi species complex. In: Anderson DM, Cembella AD, Hallegraeff GM (eds) Physiological ecology of harmful algal blooms Physiological ecology of harmful algal blooms, NATO ASI series G: ecological series, vol 41. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp 155–173

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentien P, Donaghay PL, Yamazaki H et al (2005) Harmful algal blooms in stratified environments. Oceanography 18:172–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • GEOHAB (2008) Global ecology and oceanography of harmful algal blooms, GEOHAB core research project: HABs in stratified systems. Gentien P, Reguera B, Yamazaki H et al (eds) SCOR and IOC, Paris, France, and Newark, Delaware, USA, 59 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • GEOHAB (2011) GEOHAB modelling: linking observations to predictions, a workshop report. McGillicuddy DJ Jr, Glibert PM, Berdalet E et al (eds) IOC and SCOR, Paris and Newark, Delaware, 85 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • GEOHAB (2013) Global ecology and oceanography of harmful algal blooms, GEOHAB core research project on HABs in stratified systems. Workshop on advances and challenges for understanding physical-biological interactions in HABs in stratified systems. McManus MA, Berdalet E, Ryan J et al (eds) IOC and SCOR, Paris and Newark, Delaware, U.S. 62 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Glibert PM, Pitcher GC, Bernard S et al (2018) Advancements and continuing challenges of emerging technologies and tools for detecting harmful algal blooms, their antecedent conditions and toxins, and applications in predictive models. In: Glibert PM, Berdalet E, Burford M et al (eds) Global ecology and oceanography of harmful algal blooms. Springer, Cham, pp 339–357

    Google Scholar 

  • González-Gil S, Velo-Suárez L, Gentien P et al (2010) Phytoplankton assemblages and characterization of a Dinophysis acuminata population during an upwelling–downwelling cycle. Aquat Microb Ecol 58:273–286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greer AT, Cowen RK, Guigand CM et al (2013) Relationships between phytoplankton thin layers and the fine-scale vertical distributions of two trophic levels of zooplankton. J Plankton Res 35:939–956

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson AK Jr, Donaghay PL (1998) Micro- to fine-scale chemical gradients and layers in stratified coastal waters. Oceanography 111:10–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill AE, Brown J, Fernand L et al (2008) Thermohaline circulation of shallow tidal seas. Geophys Res Lett 35:L11605. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033459

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jaffe JS, Franks PJS, Briseno C et al (2013) Advances in underwater fluorometry, from bulk fluorescence to planar laser imaging of individuals. In: Watson J, Zielinski O (eds) Subsea optics and imaging. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857093523.3.536

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson IR (1986) Oceanographic implications of non-newtonian properties found in phytoplankton cultures. Nature 323:435–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson IR (2014) Nano- and microfluidics, rheology, exopolymeric substances and fluid dynamics in calanoid copepods. In: Seuront L (ed) Copepods: diversity, habitat and behavior. Nova Science Publishers, New York, pp 181–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson IR, Biddanda BA (1995) Bulk-phase viscoelastic properties of seawater relationship with plankton components. J Plankton Res 17:2251–2274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson IR, Claireaux G, Gentien P (2007) Biorheological properties of intertidal organic fluff on mud flats and its modification of gill ventilation in buried sole Solea solea. Mar Biol 150:471–485

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson IR, Sun J (2010) Rheological properties of natural waters with regard to plankton thin layers. J Mar Syst 83:287–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson IR, Sun J (2011) A model of pycnocline thickness modified by the rheological properties of phytoplankton exopolymeric substances. J Plankton Rese 33:373–383

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson IR, Wyatt T (1992) Selection and control of Deborah numbers in plankton ecology. J Plankton Res 14:1697–1721

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamykowski D, Yamazaki H, Yamazaki AK et al (1998) A comparison of how different orientation behaviours influence dinoflagellate trajectories and photoresponses in turbulent water columns. In: Anderson DM, Cembella AD, Hallegraeff GM (eds) Physiological ecology of harmful algal blooms, NATO ASI series G: ecological series, vol 41. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp 581–599

    Google Scholar 

  • Karp-Boss L, Boss E, Jumars PA (1996) Nutrient fluxes to planktonic osmotrophs in the presence of fluid motion. Oceanogr Mar Biol Annu Rev 34:71–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Kesaulya I, Leterme SC, Mitchell JG et al (2008) The impact of turbulence and phytoplankton dynamics on foam formation, seawater viscosity and chlorophyll concentration in the eastern English Channel. Oceanologia 50:167–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiørboe T (1997) Small-scale turbulence, marine snow formation, and planktivorous feeding. In: Marrasé C, Saiz E, Redondo JM (eds) Lectures on plankton and turbulence. Sci Mar 61(Supl. 1):141–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Klausmeier CA, Litchman E (2001) Algal games: the vertical distribution of phytoplankton in poorly mixed water columns. Limnol Oceanogr 46:1998–2007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolmogorov AN (1941) Dissipation of energy in isotropic turbulence. Dokl Akad Nauk SSSR 32:19–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Kononen K, Huttunen M, Hällfors S et al (2003) Development of a deep chlorophyll maximum of Heterocapsa triquetra Ehrenb. at the entrance to the Gulf of Finland. Limnol Oceanogr 48:594–607

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lasker R (1978) Fishing for anchovies off California. Mar Pollut Bull 9:320–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lunven M, Guillaud JF, Youenou A et al (2005) Nutrient and phytoplankton distribution in the Loire River plume (Bay of Biscay, France) resolved by a new Fine Scale Sampler. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 65:94–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lunven M, Landeira JM, Lehaître M et al (2012) In situ video and fluorescence analysis (VFA) of marine particles: applications to phytoplankton ecological studies. Limnol Oceanogr Methods 10:807–823

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacKenzie L, Beuzenberg V, Holland P et al (2004) Solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT): a new monitoring tool that simulates the biotoxin contamination of filter feeding bivalves. Toxicon 44:901–918

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mafra LL Jr, Nagai S, Uchida H et al (2016) Harmful effects of Dinophysis to the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum: implications for prey capture. Harmful Algae 59:82–90

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mann KH, Lazier JRN (1991) Dynamics of marine ecosystems. Biological-physical interactions in the oceans. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • Mari X, Torréton J-P, Trinh CBT et al (2012) Aggregation dynamics along a salinity gradient in the Bach Dang estuary, North Vietnam. Estuar Coast Mar Sci 96:151–158

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matrai P, Thompson B, Keller M (2005) Circannual excystment patterns of Alexandrium spp. from eastern Gulf of Maine populations. Deep Sea Res Part II 52:2560–2568

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGillicuddy D Jr (2010) Models of harmful algal blooms: conceptual, empirical and numerical approaches. J Mar Syst 83:105–107

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McManus MA, Alldredge AL, Barnard A et al (2003) Changes in characteristics, distribution and persistence of thin layers over a 48-hour period. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 261:1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McManus MA, Kudela RM, Silver MV et al (2008) Cryptic blooms: are thin layers the missing connection? Estuar Coasts 31:396–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake Y, Koizumi M (1948) The measurement of the viscosity coefficient of seawater. J Mar Res 7:63–66

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ní Rathaille A, Raine R (2011) Seasonality in the excystment of Alexandrium minutum and Alexandrium tamarense in Irish coastal waters. Harmful Algae 10(6):629–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pitcher GC, Figueiras FG, Kudela RM et al (2018) Key questions and recent research advances on harmful algal blooms in eastern boundary upwelling systems. In: Glibert PM, Berdalet E, Burford M et al (eds) Global ecology and oceanography of harmful algal blooms. Springer, Cham, pp 205–227

    Google Scholar 

  • Raine R, Berdalet E, McManus MA et al (eds) (2014) Harmful algal blooms in stratified systems. Deep Sea Res Part II 101:254

    Google Scholar 

  • Raine R, Cosgrove S, Fennell S et al (2017) Origins of Dinophysis blooms which impact Irish aquaculture. In: Proenca LAO, Hallegraeff G (eds) Proceedings of the 17th conference on harmful algae, Florianopolis, Brazil, October 2016 (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralston DK, Keafer BA, Brosnahan ML et al (2014) Temperature dependence of an estuarine harmful algal bloom: resolving interannual variability in bloom dynamics using a degree day approach. Limnol Oceanogr 59:1112–1126

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rines JEB, Donaghay PL, Dekshenieks MM et al (2002) Thin layers and camouflage: hidden Pseudo-nitzschia populations in a fjord in the San Juan Islands, Washington, USA. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 225:123–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross ON, Sharples J (2008) Swimming for survival: the role of phytoplankton motility in turbulent environments. J Mar Syst 70:248–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothschild BJ, Osborn TR (1988) Small-scale turbulence and plankton contact rates. J Plankton Res 10:465–474

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothstein JP (2010) Slip on superhydrophobic surfaces. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 42:89–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan JP, McManus MA, Paduan JD et al (2008) Phytoplankton thin layers caused by shear in frontal zones of a coastal upwelling system. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 354:21–34

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan JP, McManus MA, Sullivan JM (2010) Interacting physical, chemical and biological forcing of phytoplankton thin-layer variability in Monterey Bay, California. Cont Shelf Res 30:7–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid CE (1993) Cell-cell-recognition during fertilization in Ectocarpus siliculosus (Phaeophyceae). Hydrobiologia 260/261:437–443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seuront L, Lacheze C, Doubell M et al (2007) The influence of Phaeocystis globosa on microscale spatial patterns of chlorophyll a and bulk-phase seawater viscosity. Biogeochemistry 83:173–188

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seuront L, Vincent D, Mitchell JG (2006) Biologically induced modification of seawater viscosity in the Eastern English Channel during a Phaeocystis globosa spring bloom. J Mar Syst 61:118–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smayda TJ (2002) Turbulence, watermass stratification and harmful algal blooms: an alternative view and frontal zones as “pelagic seed banks”. Harmful Algae 1:95–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stacey MT, McManus MA, Steinbuck JV (2007) Convergences and divergences and thin layer formation and maintenance. Limnol Oceanogr 52:1523–1532

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinbuck JV, Stacey MT, McManus MA et al (2009) Observations of turbulent mixing in a phytoplankton thin layer: implications for formation, maintenance, and breakdown. Limnol Oceanogr 544:1353–1368

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sverdrup HU (1953) On conditions for the vernal blooming of phytoplankton. J Conseil 18:287–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Svetlic V, Balnois E, Žutic V et al (2006) Electrochemical detection of gel microparticles in seawater. Croat Chem Acta 79:107–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang YZ, Gobler CJ (2010) Allelopathic effects of Cochlodinium polykrikoides isolates and blooms from the estuaries of Long Island, New York, on co-occurring phytoplankton. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 406:19–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tillmann U, John U (2002) Toxic effects of Alexandrium spp. on heterotrophic dinoflagellates: an allelochemical defence mechanism independent of PSP toxin content. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 230:47–58

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Timmermann A, Timmerman HV, McManus MA et al (2014) Hidden thin layers of toxic diatoms in a coastal bay. Deep Sea Res Part II 101:129–140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trainer VL, Bates SS, Lundholm N et al (2012) Pseudo-nitzschia physiological ecology, phylogeny, toxicity, monitoring and impacts on ecosystem health. Harmful Algae 14:271–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velo-Suárez L, González-Gil S, Gentien P et al (2008) Thin layers of Pseudo-nitzschia spp. and the fate of Dinophysis acuminata during an upwelling-downwelling cycle in a Galician Ría. Limnol Oceanogr 53:1816–1834

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velo-Suárez L, Reguera B, González-Gil S et al (2010) Application of a 3D Lagrangian model to explain the decline of a Dinophysis acuminata bloom in the Bay of Biscay. J Mar Syst 83:242–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velo-Suárez L, González-Gil S, Pazos Y et al (2014) The growth season of Dinophysis acuminata in an upwelling system embayment: a conceptual model based on in situ measurements. Deep Sea Res Part II 101:141–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong T-S, Kang SH, Tang SKY et al (2011) Bioinspired self-repairing slippery surfaces with pressure-stable omniphobicity. Nature 477:443–447

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt T, Jenkinson IR (1997) Notes on Alexandrium population dynamics. J Plankton Res 19:551–575

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamazaki H, Honma H, Nagai T et al (2010) Multilayer biological structure and mixing in the upper water column of Lake Biwa during summer 2008. Limnology 11:63–70

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamazaki H, Locke C, Umlauf L et al (2014) A Lagrangian model for phototaxis-induced thin layer formation. Deep Sea Res Part II 101:193–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamasaki Y, Shikata T, Nukata A et al (2009) Extracellular polysaccharideprotein complexes of a harmful alga mediate the allelopathic control it exerts within the phytoplankton community. ISME J 3:808–817

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This chapter is a contribution of the GEOHAB Core Research Project on HABs in Stratified Systems. It is a tribute to our colleague and friend Patrick Gentien who passed away in 2010. Patrick inspired and fostered research of the fine- and small-scale processes involved in HAB dynamics.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Earth and Ocean Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

    Robin Raine

  2. Institute of Marine Sciences (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

    Elisa Berdalet

  3. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

    Hidekatsu Yamazaki

  4. ACRO, La Roche-Canillac, France and Institute of Oceanology, Qingdao, China

    Ian Jenkinson

  5. Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Vigo, Spain

    Beatriz Reguera

Authors
  1. Robin Raine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elisa Berdalet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Hidekatsu Yamazaki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ian Jenkinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Beatriz Reguera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robin Raine .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Horn Point Laboratory, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Cambridge, Maryland, USA

    Patricia M. Glibert

  2. Institute of Marine Sciences (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

    Elisa Berdalet

  3. Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia

    Michele A. Burford

  4. Fisheries Research and Development, Cape Town, South Africa

    Grant C. Pitcher

  5. Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China

    Mingjiang Zhou

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Raine, R., Berdalet, E., Yamazaki, H., Jenkinson, I., Reguera, B. (2018). Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Stratified Systems. In: Glibert, P., Berdalet, E., Burford, M., Pitcher, G., Zhou, M. (eds) Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms . Ecological Studies, vol 232. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70069-4_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation