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The Palgrave Handbook of Criminal and Terrorism Financing Law pp 967–993Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Criminal Prosecutions for Terrorism Financing in the UK

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Abstract

Criminal prosecution is destined to form a significant part of the assemblage of measures invoked for countering terrorism financing (CTF). This chapter considers how the UK has applied criminal prosecutions for CTF. The UK represents an interesting case study for two reasons. One is that the UK enjoys a rich history of development of anti-terrorism laws in this field. Second, the UK is a major trend-setter in terrorism law design, and so its offences represent important precedents elsewhere. The project of analysing the UK law is undertaken in three substantive parts. First, details are given of CTF provisions. Second, there is a prosecutor’s viewpoint of the nature of criminal litigation in this field. Third, a defender’s viewpoint analyses a case study on property forfeiture.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Chapter 31 (de Goede) in this collection.

  2. 2.

    See Chaps. 35 (Bures), 36 (Powell), and 37 (Prost) in this collection.

  3. 3.

    Bank Mellat v HM Treasury [2015] EWCA Civ 105.

  4. 4.

    UNGA International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (adopted 9 December 1999, opened for signature 10 January 2000) (2000) 39 ILM 270.

  5. 5.

    See Chaps. 33 (Michaelsen and Goldbarsht) and 41 (Gurule and Danek) in this collection.

  6. 6.

    Clive Walker, ‘The Impact of Contemporary Security Agendas against Terrorism on the Substantive Criminal Law’ in Aniceto Masferrer (ed), Post 9/11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency Security and Human Rights in Countering Terrorism (Springer 2012) 133.

  7. 7.

    Tony McNulty, House of Commons Debates vol 472 col 561 (21 February 2008). See further Clive Walker, ‘Terrorism Prosecution in the United Kingdom: Lessons in the Manipulation of Criminalisation and Due Process’ in Oren Gross and Fionnuala Ni Aolàin, Guantanamo and Beyond: Exceptional Courts and Military Commissions in Comparative and Policy Perspective (CUP 2013).

  8. 8.

    See Clive Walker, ‘Terrorism and Criminal Justice: Past, Present and Future’ [2004] Criminal Law Review 311.

  9. 9.

    See Kent Roach, The 9/11 Effect: Comparative Counter-Terrorism (CUP 2011).

  10. 10.

    For details, see Clive Walker, The Anti-Terrorism Legislation (3rd edn, OUP 2014) Ch 3.

  11. 11.

    See Attorney General’s Reference (No 5 of 2006) (Potts) [2004] NICA 27; Attorney General’s Reference No 5 of 2006 (O’Donnell) [2006] NICA 38; R v Lowey and Bennett [2007] NICA 9.

  12. 12.

    Compare the Terrorism Financing Convention (n 4) art 2.

  13. 13.

    See Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Final Report of the International Piracy Ransoms Task Force (2012).

  14. 14.

    R v McDonald, Rafferty, and O’Farrell [2005] EWCA Crim 1945.

  15. 15.

    Birmingham Post, ‘Eight Years for Three Who Helped Terrorists’ Birmingham Post (Birmingham, 12 June 2007) <www.birminghampost.co.uk/news/local-news/eight-years-three-who-helped-3970958> accessed 27 April 2017.

  16. 16.

    R v Hassan Mutegombwa [2009] EWCA Crim 684.

  17. 17.

    R v Saleem and others [2009] EWCA Crim 920.

  18. 18.

    John-Paul Ford Rojas, ‘Tamil Jailed for Supplying Rebel Tigers’ Press Association Mediapoint (12 June 2009).

  19. 19.

    R v Karim [2011] EWCA Crim 2577.

  20. 20.

    Duncan Gardham, ‘Couple Jailed for Sending Funds to Jihadist Nephew’ The Times (London, 23 November 2016) 27.

  21. 21.

    O’Driscoll v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] EWHC 2477 (Admin).

  22. 22.

    BBC News, ‘Missile Plot Briton Sent to Jail’ BBC News (30 April 2007) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6206886.stm> accessed 27 April 2017.

  23. 23.

    R v Meziane [2004] EWCA Crim 1768. See also R v Khan [2007] EWCA Crim 2331; R v McCaugherty and Gregory [2010] NICC 35.

  24. 24.

    Nasserdine Menni v HM Advocate [2013] HCJAC 158, [2014] HCJAC 54.

  25. 25.

    See further Chap. 46 (Dutton) in this collection.

  26. 26.

    R v McDonald, Rafferty, and O’Farrell [2005] EWCA Crim 1945 and [2005] EWCA Crim 1970.

  27. 27.

    Meziane (n 23) [74] per Lord Justice Tuckey.

  28. 28.

    HM Treasury, The Financial Challenge to Crime and Terrorism (2007) para 2.9.

  29. 29.

    The Counter Terrorism Act 2008, s 34 substitutes a new version of s 23.

  30. 30.

    See HM Treasury (n 28) para 2.9.

  31. 31.

    See Home Office, Explanatory Notes to the Terrorism Act 2000 (2000) para 33.

  32. 32.

    As amended by the Counter Terrorism Act 2008, s 39 and Sch 3.

  33. 33.

    See further Civil Procedure Rules RSC Ord 115 Pt III; Practice Direction RSC 115.

  34. 34.

    See Inquiry into Legislation against Terrorism (Cm 3420 1996) para 13.33.

  35. 35.

    See Home Office Circular 30/2002: Guidance for the Police and Public on the implementation of Sections 1–2 of the Anti-terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 (2002) para 17.

  36. 36.

    Para 11, issued under the Terrorism Act 2000 (Code of Practice for Authorised Officers) Order 2001, SI 2001/425. Further enforcement rules are set out in of the Terrorism Act 2000, s 115 and Sch 14.

  37. 37.

    See the CTA 2008, s 83.

  38. 38.

    See Magistrates’ Courts (Detention and Forfeiture of Terrorist Cash) (No 2) Rules 2001, SI 2001/4013.

  39. 39.

    Inserted by the Terrorism Act 2006, s 35(1).

  40. 40.

    See Bank Mellat v HM Treasury [2013] UKSC 39.

  41. 41.

    See Magistrates’ Courts (Detention and Forfeiture of Terrorist Cash) (No 2) Rules 2001, SI 2001/4013, as amended by the Magistrates’ Courts (Miscellaneous Amendments) Rules 2003, SI 2003/1236; Crown Court (Amendment) Rules 2001, SI 2001/4012.

  42. 42.

    Peter Binning, ‘In Safe Hands?’ Striking the Balance Between Privacy and Security—Anti-Terrorist Finance Measures’ (2002) 6 European Human Rights Law Review 734, 743; Privy Counsellor Review Committee, Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 Review Report (2003–04 HC 100), para B15; Home Office, Counter-Terrorism Powers (Cm 6147, 2004) para II4.

  43. 43.

    Hansard (HL) vol 629, col 305 (28 November 2001), col 1047 (6 December 2001), Lord Rooker.

  44. 44.

    RE Bell, ‘The Seizure, Detention and Forfeiture of Cash in the UK’ (2003) 11(2) Journal of Financial Crime 134, 138.

  45. 45.

    As substituted by the CTA 2008, s 84.

  46. 46.

    Home Office, Explanatory Notes on the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Bill (2001) para 340.

  47. 47.

    Clive Walker, The Anti-Terrorism Legislation (2nd edn, OUP 2009) para 3.103. See also Cabinet Office Performance and Innovation Office, Recovering the Proceeds of Crime (2000); Northern Ireland Affairs Select Committee, The Financing of Terrorism in Northern Ireland (2001–2002 HC 978) paras 50, 129, 140, and 157.

  48. 48.

    For overlaps, see Colin King and Clive Walker, ‘Counter Terrorism Financing: A Redundant Fragmentation?’ (2015) 6(3) New Journal of European Criminal Law 372.

  49. 49.

    Home Office, Countering International Terrorism (Cm.6888 2006), as revised by Cm 7547 2009, Cm 7833 2010, Cm 8123 2011, Cm 8583 2013, Cm 8848 2014, Cm 9048 2015, Cm 9310 2016. See further Chap. 32 (Ryder, Thomas and Webb) in this collection.

  50. 50.

    Home Office, Countering International Terrorism (Cm.6888 2006) paras 6–9.

  51. 51.

    HM Treasury (n 28) para 1.5. The list of objectives does not distinguish further between the funds needed to support terrorist operations and funds needed to support the organisational infrastructure.

  52. 52.

    Ibid., Ch 3.

  53. 53.

    HM Treasury, ‘Counter Terrorist Finance Strategy’ (2013) <www.gov.uk/government/publications/counter-terrorist-finance-strategy> accessed 23 April 2017. This source is a one-page web source which is confined to the five bullet points above. It was confirmed by letter of 1 July 2013 to Walker from the Correspondence and Enquiries Team, HM Treasury that there is no more elaborate document.

  54. 54.

    UNSC Res 1267 (15 October 1999) UN Doc S/RES/1267; UNSC Res 1333 (19 December 2000) UN Doc S/RES/1333; UNSC Res 1988 (17 June 2011) UN Doc S/RES/1988; UNSC Res 1989 (17 June 2011) UN Doc S/RES/1989; UNSC Res 2161 (17 June 2014) UN Doc S/RES/2161; UNSC Res 2170 (15 August 2014) UN Doc S/RES/2170; UNSC Res 2178 (24 September 2014) UN Doc S/RES/2178; and UNSC Res 2199 (12 February 2015) UN Doc S/RES/2199.

  55. 55.

    Assets frozen (as at 30/09/14) under TAFA 2010 amounted to £61,000: David Anderson, Fourth Report on the Operation of the Terrorist Asset-Freezing etc. Act 2010 (Review Period: Year to 16 September 2014) (Home Office 2015) para 2.22.

  56. 56.

    See R v Adebolajo and Adbowale [2014] EWCA Crim 2779; Intelligence and Security Committee, Report on the Intelligence Relating to the Murder of Fusilier Lee Rigby (2014–15 HC 795).

  57. 57.

    Anwar al-Awlaki, ‘The Ruling on Dispossessing the Disbelievers Wealth in Dar al-Harb’ (2010) 4 Inspire 59, 60.

  58. 58.

    Department for International Development, Risk Management in DFID (2013); Department for International Development, DFID Management Response (2016).

  59. 59.

    See Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO), ‘Freedom of Information Act 2000 (FOIA) Decision Notice’ FS50570535 <https://ico.org.uk/media/action-weve-taken/decision-notices/2015/1560082/fs_50570535.pdf> accessed 23 April 2017.

  60. 60.

    Prosecution of Offences Act 1985, s 3(2)(a).

  61. 61.

    Hansard (HC) Standing Committee D, col 295 (3 February 2000), Charles Clarke.

  62. 62.

    Terrorism Act 2006, s 37; CTA 2008, s 29.

  63. 63.

    Lord Carlile, Proposals by Her Majesty’s Government for Changes to the Laws against Terrorism (Home Office 2005) para 49.

  64. 64.

    See CPS, ‘Code for Crown Prosecutors’ <www.cps.gov.uk/publications/code_for_crown_prosecutors/index.html> accessed 23 April 2017; CPS, ‘Casework Quality Standards’ <www.cps.gov.uk/publications/casework_quality_standards/index.html> accessed 23 April 2017.

  65. 65.

    See Susan Hemming, ‘The Practical Application of Counter-Terrorism Legislation in England and Wales: A Prosecutor’s Perspective’ (2010) 86(4) International Affairs 955.

  66. 66.

    See CPS, ‘Successful Prosecutions Since the End of 2006’ <www.cps.gov.uk/publications/prosecution/ctd.html> accessed 23 April 2017.

  67. 67.

    See CPS, ‘Special Crime and Counter Terrorism Division’ <www.cps.gov.uk/your_cps/our_organisation/sc_and_ctd.html> accessed 23 April 2017.

  68. 68.

    There were 16 by later 2007 and the Leeds office opened in 2009: Joint Committee on Human Rights, Counter-Terrorism Policy and Human Rights: 42 days (2007–08 HL 23/HC 156) Ev 47.

  69. 69.

    Joint Committee on Human Rights, Counter-Terrorism Policy and Human Rights: Prosecution and Pre-Charge Detention (2005–06 HL 240/HC 1576) para 87.

  70. 70.

    Ibid.

  71. 71.

    Home Office, Operation of Police Powers Under the Terrorism Act 2000 and Subsequent Legislation: Arrests, Outcomes, and Stop and Search, Great Britain, Quarterly Update to December 2016, Statistical Bulletin 04/17 (2017) para 1.2.

  72. 72.

    HM Crown Prosecution Inspectorate, Report of the Inspection of the Counter Terrorism Division of CPS Headquarters (2009).

  73. 73.

    Ibid., para 2.3.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., para 2.25.

  75. 75.

    David Anderson, Report on the Operation in 2011 of the Terrorism Act 2000 and Part I of the Terrorism Act 2006 (Home Office 2012) para 5.11.

  76. 76.

    Peter Sproat, ‘Counter-Terrorist Finance in the UK’ (2010) 13 Journal of Money Laundering Control 315, 320.

  77. 77.

    R v Kahar [2016] EWCA Crim 568.

  78. 78.

    See for example R v Abdallah (Abdalraouf) [2016] EWCA Crim 1868; R v Ulhaque and others [2016] EWCA Civ 2209.

  79. 79.

    See The Times, ‘R v El-Wahabi and Msaad’ The Times (London, 14 November 2014) 15.

  80. 80.

    See R v Khawaja and others, Sentencing Remarks of Mr Justice Jeremy Baker, Woolwich CC (6 February 2015) <www.judiciary.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/khawaja-sentencing-remarks1.pdf> accessed 23 April 2017; R v Bhatti [2015] EWCA Crim 764.

  81. 81.

    See R v Hana Khan, R v Majdi Shajira; and R v Mohammed Abdul Saboor (all are reported at CPS, The Counter-Terrorism Division of the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)—Cases Concluded in 2015 <www.cps.gov.uk/publications/prosecution/ctd_2015.html> accessed 23 April 2017; R v Stephen Gray and Abdalraof Abdallah (Woolwich Crown Court, 15 July 2016).

  82. 82.

    See R v SEH [2016] EWCA Crim 1609.

  83. 83.

    See the case of Yahya Rashid in R v Kahar [2016] EWCA Crim 568.

  84. 84.

    The Times, ‘R v Irfan Naseer and others’ The Times (London, 27 April 2013) 6.

  85. 85.

    BBC News, ‘R v Hoque and Miah’ (2016) BBC News < www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-38419488> (not charged under s 5).

  86. 86.

    See FATF, Report on Financing of the Terrorist Organisation Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) (FATF/OECD 2015).

  87. 87.

    Attorney-General’s Reference Nos 85, 86 and 87 of 2007 [2007] EWCA Crim 3300.

  88. 88.

    Ibid. [28].

  89. 89.

    R v Farooqi, Newton, and Malik [2013] EWCA Crim 1649; R v Farooqi (Manchester Crown Court, 23 May 2014). See also Matthew Scott, ‘R v Farooqi—Has the Court of Appeal Compounded an Injustice?’ (2012) 177 Justice of the Peace 689. Further proceedings involved one of the advocates: Laurence McNulty (Bar Standards Board, 30 July 2014).

  90. 90.

    Munir Farooqi was also sentenced to four terms of life imprisonment.

  91. 91.

    The policy of collective punishment against terrorism can be a war crime: Ronald C Kramer and Raymond J Michalowski, ‘War, Aggression and State Crime: A Criminological Analysis of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq’ (2005) 45(4) British Journal of Criminology 446, 452; Shane Darcy, ‘Prosecuting the War Crime of Collective Punishment: Is It Time to Amend the Rome Statute?’ (2010) 8(1) Journal of International Criminal Justice 29. In domestic law, house destruction is practiced in Israel, a policy inherited from the British colonial administration under the Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945, r 119. See HCJ 8091/14 Hamoked v Ministry of Defence (31 December 2014).

  92. 92.

    See George P Fletcher, ‘Collective Guilt and Collective Punishment’ (2004) 5(1) Theoretical Inquiries in Law 163; Jeff McMahan, ‘Collective Crime and Collective Punishment’ (2008) 27(1) Criminal Justice Ethics 4.

  93. 93.

    Details from transcript of Judgment in case T20107579 (23 May 2014) 3. Mathew Newton and Israr Malik were convicted of engaging in conduct in preparation of acts of terrorism and soliciting to murder.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., 14.

  95. 95.

    Harris Farroqi stated that ‘The women and two children in the house are totally innocent and should not be punished. We shouldn’t face collective punishment. This law has never been used against anyone before’. (Rahila Bano, ‘Munir Farooqi Family Face Terrorism Law Property Seizure Bid’ BBC News (7 November 2011) <www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15611358> accessed 27 April 2017). On 8 November 2011 the family delivered a 10 000 strong petition to the CPS urging a rethink on the application to forfeit the family home.

  96. 96.

    Judgment 21.

  97. 97.

    Ibid., 15.

  98. 98.

    Ibid.

  99. 99.

    Ibid.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., 16.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., 18.

  102. 102.

    Ibid., 20.

  103. 103.

    Ibid.

  104. 104.

    Ibid., 19.

  105. 105.

    Ibid., 20–21.

  106. 106.

    See Chap. 33 (Michaelsen and Goldbarsht) in this collection.

  107. 107.

    See Bruce Zagaris, ‘The Merging of the Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financial Enforcement Regimes After Sept 11, 2001’ (2004) 22(1) Berkeley Journal of International Law 123; William C Gilmore, Dirty Money: The Evolution of International Measures to Counter Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism (4th edn, Council of Europe 2011) Ch V.

  108. 108.

    Home Office, Report of the Official Account of the Bombings in London on the 7th July 2005 (2005–06 HC 1087) paras 63 and 64.

  109. 109.

    FATF, Third Mutual Evaluation Report Anti Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (FATF/OECD 2007) para 161.

  110. 110.

    Sproat (n 77) 322.

  111. 111.

    FATF (n 111) para 165; IMF, United Kingdom: Anti-Money Laundering/Combating the Financing of Terrorism Technical Note (Report No 11/231 2011) para 19.

  112. 112.

    See Organised Crime Task Force, Annual Reports and Threat Assessments 2009–2016 (Belfast).

  113. 113.

    McIntosh v Lord Advocate [2001] UKPC D1 [25].

  114. 114.

    See R v Briggs-Price [2009] UKHL 19; Serious Organised Crime Agency v Gale [2011] UKSC 49; Phillips v United Kingdom App no 41087/98 (ECthR, 5 July 2001); Butler v United Kingdom App no 41661/98 (ECtHR, 27 June 2002).

  115. 115.

    Butt v HM Customs & Excise [2001] EWHC Admin 1066; Re the Director of the Assets Recovery Agency [2004] NIQB 21; Walsh v Director of the Assets Recovery Agency [2005] NICA 6; R v Rezvi [2002] UKHL 1 [17].

  116. 116.

    See R (McCann) v Crown Court at Manchester [2002] UKHL 39 [83]; Assets Recovery Agency v He & Chen [2004] EWHC 3021 (Admin) [66].

  117. 117.

    See Director of Assets Recovery Agency v Jackson [2007] EWHC 2553 (QB) [221].

  118. 118.

    See R v Rezvi [2002] UKHL 1 [15]; Re Director of the Assets Recovery Agency [2004] NIQB 21; R (K) v Bow Street Magistrates’ Court [2005] EWHC 2271 (Admin); Walsh v Director of the Assets Recovery Agency [2005] NICA 6; Belton v Director of the Assets Recovery Agency [2006] NICA 2; Grayson and Barnham v United Kingdom App no 19955/05 and 15085/06 (ECtHR, 23 September 2008).

  119. 119.

    R v Benjafield [2002] UKHL 2 [8].

  120. 120.

    National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Report (GPO 2004) 382.

  121. 121.

    J Millard Burr and Robert O Collins, Alms for Jihad (CUP 2006) 302.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Stephen Lickrish & Associates Ltd., Manchester, UK

    Nasir Hafezi

  2. Special Crime and Counter Terrorism Division, CPS, London, UK

    Karen Jones

  3. University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

    Clive Walker

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Sussex, Falmer, United Kingdom

    Colin King

  2. University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

    Clive Walker

  3. Notre Dame Law School, Notre Dame, IN, USA

    Jimmy Gurulé

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Hafezi, N., Jones, K., Walker, C. (2018). Criminal Prosecutions for Terrorism Financing in the UK. In: King, C., Walker, C., Gurulé, J. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Criminal and Terrorism Financing Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64498-1_40

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