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Towards a New World Order

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China and the Middle East

Part of the book series: Global Political Transitions ((GLPOTR))

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Abstract

The twenty-first century’s Great Game is about the creation of a new Eurasia-centred world. It locks China, Russia, India, Japan, and Europe into what is an epic battle. The United States under President Donald J. Trump is a joker in the game as its foreign policy evolves in fits and starts. Middle Eastern rivals, Saudi Arabia and Iran locked into a bitter battle for regional hegemony, are key players too.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Ibid. Cendrowski

  2. 2.

    James Kynge, How the Silk Road plans will be financed, Financial Times, 9 May 2016, https://www.f.com/content/e83ced94-0bd8-11e6-9456-444ab5211a2f

  3. 3.

    Andrew Kushin, Remarks at China in Conflict Zones: Cooperation or Competition? Conference, United States Institute of Peace and Georgetown University’s Center for Security Studies, 22 March 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bb95JhnJQBQ

  4. 4.

    Alex Vatanka, Iran’s Russian Conundrum, The Jamestown Foundation, 5 October 2017, https://jamestown.org/program/irans-russian-conundrum/?mc_cid=8a9acf2ca0&mc_eid=f8da4b6ebe

  5. 5.

    Evan S. Medeiros and Michael S. Chase, Chinese Perspectives on the Sino-Russian Relationship in Michael S. Chase, Evan S. Medeiros, J. Stapleton Roy, Eugene B. Rumer, Robert Sutter, and Richard Weitz, Russia-China Relations, Assessing Common Ground and Strategic Fault Lines, Washington DC: The National Bureau of Research, July 2017, http://www.nbr.org/publications/issue.aspx?id=349

  6. 6.

    Oliver Stuenkel, Post-Western World: How Emerging Powers are Remaking Global Order, Cambridge: Polity, 2016, Kindle edition

  7. 7.

    Ibid. Stuenkel

  8. 8.

    Ibid. Stuenkel

  9. 9.

    James M. Dorsey, Towards a New World Order in Eurasia? The Role of Russia and China, RSIS Commentaries, 22 December 2016, https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/rsis/co16310-towards-a-new-world-order-in-eurasia-the-role-of-russia-and-china/

  10. 10.

    Josh Rogin, China’s foreign influence operations are causing alarm in Washington, The Washington Post, 10 December 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/chinas-foreign-influencers-are-causing-alarm-in-washington/2017/12/10/98227264-dc58-11e7-b859-fb0995360725_story.html?utm_term=.815359d3d810

  11. 11.

    Maev Kennedy and Tom Phillips, Cambridge University Press backs down over China censorship, The Guardian, 21 August 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/education/2017/aug/21/cambridge-university-press-to-back-down-over-china-censorship

  12. 12.

    Ibid. Rogin

  13. 13.

    Juan Pablo Cardenal, Jacek Kucharczyk, Grigorij Mesežnikov, and Gabriela Pleschová, Sharp Power, Rising Authoritarian Influence, National Endowment for Democracy, December 2017, https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Sharp-Power-Rising-Authoritarian-Influence-Full-Report.pdf

  14. 14.

    World Economic Forum, President Xi’s speech to Davos in full, 17 January 2017, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/full-text-of-xi-jinping-keynote-at-the-world-economic-forum

  15. 15.

    Matthew P. Goodman and Jonathan E. Hillman, Is China Winning the Scramble for Eurasia? The National Interest, 21 August 2017, http://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-new-cold-war-was-never-inevitable-21994?page=show

  16. 16.

    New China TV, What’s wrong with the world? What can we do? 12 May 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkkGb14zIVY

  17. 17.

    Degang Sun, China and the Middle security governance in the new era, Contemporary Arab Affairs, Vol. 10:3, p. 354–371

  18. 18.

    Tom Miller, China’s Asian Dream: Empire Building along the New Silk Road, London: Zed Books, 2017, Kindle edition

  19. 19.

    Ibid. Sun

  20. 20.

    Ibid. Sun

  21. 21.

    Nicholas Thomas, The rise of China through the eyes of China, East Asia Forum, 12 September 2017, http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/09/12/the-rise-of-china-through-the-eyes-of-china/?utm_source=subscribe2&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=postnotify&utm_id=86483&utm_title=The+rise+of+China+through+the+eyes+of+China/Qing Pan and Nicholas Thomas, Chinese Nationalism and Trust in East Asia, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 9 June 2017, http://www.tandfonline.com.ezlibproxy1.ntu.edu.sg/doi/full/10.1080/00472336.2017.1322627

  22. 22.

    Ibid. Sun

  23. 23.

    Ibid. Sun

  24. 24.

    Bibhu Prasad Routrayand Mantraya, Islamic State in Central Asia—Analysis, Eurasia Review, 14 July 2017, http://www.eurasiareview.com/14072017-islamic-state-in-central-asia-analysis/

  25. 25.

    Ibid. Sun

  26. 26.

    Cai Tuo, China’s Perspective and Practice of Global Governance, Chinese Social Sciences 1, p. 94–106

  27. 27.

    Cai Tuo, Global Governance: A Chinese Perspective and Practice, Leiden: Brill, 2012, p. 57

  28. 28.

    Bilahari Kausikan, War is Unlikely but Distrust Runs Deep, Institute of Policy Studies, 27 February 2016, https://www.ipscommons.sg/war-is-unlikely-but-distrust-runs-deep/

  29. 29.

    Jeffrey Reeves, Chinese Foreign Relations with Weak Peripheral States: Asymmetrical Economic Power and Insecurity, Abingdon: Routledge, 2015, p. 2–3

  30. 30.

    James M. Dorsey, Rohingya plight feeds Muslim assertiveness, The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer, 14 September 2017, https://mideastsoccer.blogspot.co.uk/2017/09/rohingya-plight-feeds-muslim.html

  31. 31.

    Jeff M. Smith, China and Sri Lanka: Between a Dream and a Nightmare, The Diplomat, 18 November 2016, http://thediplomat.com/2016/11/china-and-sri-lanka-between-a-dream-and-a-nightmare/

  32. 32.

    The American Interest, China Eyes Turkey For Shanghai Cooperation Organization, 22 November 2016, http://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/11/21/china-eyes-turkey-for-shanghai-cooperation-organization/

  33. 33.

    Mustafa Akyol, What the “Russian lobby” in Ankara wants, Al-Monitor, 15 December 2016, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/12/turkey-russia-what-russian-lobby-wants.html

  34. 34.

    Michelle Martin, German spy agency chief says does not believe Gulen behind Turkey coup attempt, Reuters, 19 March 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-security-germany-idUSKBN16P0LQ

  35. 35.

    Mustafa Gurbuz, Beyond the Trump-Erdogan Meeting: The Rise of Eurasianists and Turkey’s Syria Policy, Arab Center Washington DC, 23 May 2017, http://arabcenterdc.org/policy_analyses/beyond-the-trump-erdogan-meeting-the-rise-of-eurasianists-and-turkeys-syria-policy/

  36. 36.

    Kadro, http://kadrodergisi.com/

  37. 37.

    Jacob Landau, Radical Politics in Modern Turkey, Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing, 1997, p. 50

  38. 38.

    Ladane Nasseri, Iran’s Leaders Are Bolstered by Billions in Loans From the East, Bloomberg, 20 September 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-09-20/iran-loaned-billions-as-asian-powers-reject-trump-world-view

  39. 39.

    Seyyed Ali Khamenei, Document of the Perspective of the Islamic Republic of Iran on the horizon of 1404 AH (چشم‌انداز جمهوري اسلامي ايران در افق سال 1404 هجري شمسي سند), Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance, March 2005, http://asl44.mefa.gov.ir/Portal/home/?generaltext/82757/82764/ سند-چشم-انداز-20-ساله-کشور

  40. 40.

    Jahangir Amuzegar, Iran’s 20-Year Economic Perspective: Promises and Pitfalls, Middle East Policy Council, Vol. XVI:3, http://www.mepc.org/journal/irans-20-year-economic-perspective-promises-and-pitfalls

  41. 41.

    Daniel Gros and Federica Mustilli, The Effects of Sanctions and Counter-Sanctions on EU-Russian Trade Flows, Center for European Policy Studies, 5 July 2016, https://www.ceps.eu/publications/effects-sanctions-and-counter-sanctions-eu-russian-trade-flows

  42. 42.

    BBC News, Russia hits West with food import ban in sanctions row, 7 August 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28687172

  43. 43.

    Alexander Gabuev, Did Western Sanctions Affect Sino-Russian Economic Ties?, Carnegie Endowment for Peace, 26 April 2016, http://carnegie.ru/2016/04/26/did-western-sanctions-affect-sino-russian-economic-ties-pub-63461

  44. 44.

    Wade Shephard, Reconnecting Asia: The Story Behind The Emerging Baku-Tbilisi-Kars Rail Line, Forbes, 15 December 2016, https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/12/15/reconnecting-asia-the-story-behind-the-emerging-baku-tbilisi-kars-rail-line/print/

  45. 45.

    Zaur Shiriyev, Will the North–South Transport Corridor Overshadow the Baku–Tbilisi–Kars Railway? Eurasia Daily Monitor, Vol. 14: 53, 24 April 2017, https://jamestown.org/program/will-north-south-transport-corridor-overshadow-baku-tbilisi-kars-railway/

  46. 46.

    Kazinform, The first train from Kazakhstan arrived in BTK in Turkish Mersin (Первый поезд из Казахстана прибыл по БТК в турецкий Мерсин), 5 November 2017, http://www.inform.kz/ru/pervyy-poezd-iz-kazahstana-pribyl-po-btk-v-tureckiy-mersin_a3082190?utm_referrer=https%253A%252F%252Fzen.yandex.com&mc_cid=df7edbcfa3&mc_eid=f8da4b6ebe

  47. 47.

    Alexander Shustov, Iran and China want to redraw the geopolitical map of Central Asia (Иран и Китай хотят перекроить геополитическую карту Центральной Азии), Eurasia Expert, 23 January 2017, http://eurasia.expert/iran-i-kitay-khotyat-perekroit-geopoliticheskuyu-kartu-tsentralnoy-azii/?mc_cid=df7edbcfa3&mc_eid=f8da4b6ebe

  48. 48.

    Kira Egorova, Why China launched a freight train to London via Kazakhstan and Russia. Russia Beyond, 13 January 2017, https://www.rbth.com/business/2017/01/13/why-china-launched-a-freight-train-to-london-via-kazakhstan-and-russia_680196

  49. 49.

    Chu Daye, Blueprint for continental cargo train to open markets in Eurasia, Global Times, 18 October 2016, http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1012168.shtml

  50. 50.

    China Regional Service, HIS Global Insight, December 2016

  51. 51.

    Alessandro Arduino, China’s Energy Interests in Central Asia, Symbiotic distrust and striking a balance between cooperation and confrontation in Fengshi Wu and Hongzhou Zhang (eds.), China’s Global Quest for Resources, Energy, food and water, London: Routledge, 2017, p. 121

  52. 52.

    Susanna Soojung Lim, China and Japan in the Russian Imagination, 1685–1922: To the Ends of the Orient, London: Routledge, 2013, p. 78

  53. 53.

    David Scott, China and the International System, 1840–1949, Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2012, p. 144

  54. 54.

    Ibid. Arduino, p. 125

  55. 55.

    Wade Shephard, 2 Days From China To Europe By Rail? Russia Going For High-Speed Cargo Trains, Forbes, 14 January 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/01/14/2-days-from-china-to-europe-by-rail-russia-going-for-high-speed-cargo-trains/print/

  56. 56.

    Gwadar News, Russia formally requests access to Gwadar Port, 25 November 2016, https://gwadarnews.com/2016/11/25/russia-formally-requests-access-to-gwadar-port/

  57. 57.

    RT, Russia-China trade up almost 10% in May, 8 June 2016, https://www.rt.com/business/345827-russia-china-trade-turnover/

  58. 58.

    Henry Foy and David Sheppard, Rosneft takes key step in push into Middle East, Financial Times, 3 April 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/5417e004-13a4-11e7-80f4-13e067d5072c

  59. 59.

    Maria Tsvetkova, Exclusive—Russian private security firm says it had armed men in east Libya, Reuters, 10 March 2017, http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-russia-libya-contractors-exclusive-idUKKBN16H2EI

  60. 60.

    BBC News, Libya’s Khalifa Haftar retakes oil ports from Islamist militia, 14 March 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39266509

  61. 61.

    Joseph S. Nye, A New Sino-Russian Alliance? Project Syndicate, 12 January 2015, https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/russia-china-alliance-by-joseph-s--nye-2015-01

  62. 62.

    Ibrahim Hamidi, Syrian Regime’s Delay in Sealing Economic Agreements Cause Row with Tehran («من بطء تنفيذ اتفاقات استر اتيجية مع دمشق طهران«غاضبة), Al Hayat, 8 March 2017, http://www.alhayat.com/m/story/20602223

  63. 63.

    Mark N. Katz and Hussein Ibish, Can Moscow Be an Effective Mideast Mediator? Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington, 24 March 2017, http://www.agsiw.org/can-moscow-effective-mideast-mediator/

  64. 64.

    Katya Golubkova, Dmitry Zhdannikov, and Stephen Jewkes, How Russia sold its oil jewel: without saying who bought it, Reuters, 25 January 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-rosneft-privatisation-insight-idUSKBN1582OH

  65. 65.

    Theodore Karasik, Why is Qatar Investing so much in Russia? Middle East Institute, 8 March 2017, http://www.mei.edu/content/article/why-qatar-investing-so-much-russia

  66. 66.

    Leone Lakhani, Russia-Gulf Arab States: A Relationship of Convenience, The Cipher Brief, 7 March 2017, https://www.thecipherbrief.com/article/exclusive/middle-east/russia-gulf-arab-states-relationship-convenience-1091?utm_content=bufferc3874&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

  67. 67.

    Xi Jinping, Full Text of Chinese president’s signed article in Kazakh newspaper, Xinhuanet, 17 June 2017, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-06/07/c_136347206.htm

  68. 68.

    Deutsche Welle, Kazakhstan spells out plans for alphabet swap, 12 April 2017, http://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-spells-out-plans-for-alphabet-swap/a-38407769

  69. 69.

    Christian Shepherd, China, Kyrgyzstan Border Forces Hold Exercises to Stop Arms Smuggling, Reuters, 27 June 2017, https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-06-27/china-kyrgyzstan-border-forces-hold-exercises-to-stop-arms-smuggling

  70. 70.

    Mohammed Al-Sudairi, Changing State-Religion Dynamics in Xi Jinping’s China: And its Consequences for Sino-Saudi Relations, King Faisal Center For Research and Islamic Studies, January 2017, http://kfcris.com/pdf/32a413c468c1b66c84d974e0b34c1efa58d77ebe4d1a1.pdf

  71. 71.

    Robert R. Bianchi, The Perception of the 2009 Urumqi Conflict across the Islamic World in Niv Horesh (ed), Toward Well-Oiled Relations? China’s Presence in the Middle East Following the Arab Spring, Houndsmill, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 48–68

  72. 72.

    Site Intelligence Group, IS Video Highlights Uighur Fighters and Children, training Camps in Western Iraq, 27 February 2017, https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Multimedia/is-video-highlights-Uighur-fighters-and-children-training-camps-in-western-iraq.html

  73. 73.

    Michael Clarke, After ISIS Threat, China May Have to Get off Sidelines in Middle East, Foreign Policy, 3 March 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/03/03/after-isis-threat-china-may-have-to-get-off-sidelines-in-middle-east/?utm_content=buffer36dbf&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

  74. 74.

    Giles Gibson, Exclusive: Chinese security forces caught patrolling deep inside eastern Afghanistan, WION, 3 November 2016, http://www.wionews.com/south-asia/exclusive-chinese-security-forces-caught-patrolling-deep-inside-eastern-afghanistan-8008//Franz J. Marty, The curious case of Chinese troops on Afghan soil, The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst, 3 February 2017, https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13424-the-curious-case-of-chinese-troops-on-afghan-soil.html

  75. 75.

    Allison Jackson and Gohar Abbas, China in talks over military base in remote Afghanistan: officials, Agence France Presse, 2 February 2018, https://www.yahoo.com/news/china-talks-over-military-remote-afghanistan-officials-030210395.html

  76. 76.

    People’s Daily, China, Pakistan hold joint anti-terrorism drills, 7 November 2016, http://en.people.cn/n3/2016/1107/c90000-9138367.html

  77. 77.

    Andrew R.C. Marshall, Led by China, Mekong nations take on Golden Triangle narco-empire, Reuters, 17 March 2016, http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-southeastasia-drugs-mekong-idUKKCN0WH2ZW

  78. 78.

    Email interview with Chinese private security scholar Alessandro Arduino, 8 March 2017

  79. 79.

    Jonny, The Complete Adventure Guide To The Afghanistan Wakhan Valley And Pamir, Backpacking Man, 24 October 2016, http://backpackingman.com/afghanistan-wakhan-hiking-little-pamir/

  80. 80.

    Ting Shi, China Moves Closer to Afghan Security Role, Bloomberg, 12 April 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-04-11/growing-terrorism-risk-leads-china-to-boost-role-in-afghanistan

  81. 81.

    Ibid. Gibson

  82. 82.

    Ibid. BBC News, China passes controversial new anti-terror laws

  83. 83.

    Ministry of National Defense, Defense Ministry’s regular press conference on Feb. 23, 24 February 2017, http://eng.mod.gov.cn/Press/2017-02/24/content_4773551.htm

  84. 84.

    Carlotta Gall, Iran Gains Ground in Afghanistan as U.S. Presence Wanes, The New York Times, 5 August 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/05/world/asia/iran-afghanistan-taliban.html

  85. 85.

    Sputnik International, China Supplies Air Defense Systems, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle to Uzbekistan, 2 February 2015, https://sputniknews.com/military/201502021017650004/

  86. 86.

    Yaroslav Trofimov, In Uzbekistan, Signs of a Thaw After Decades of Repression, The Wall Street Journal, 14 September 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-uzbekistan-signs-of-a-thaw-after-decades-of-repression-1505381404

  87. 87.

    Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Thousands Attend Reopening Of Major Checkpoint Along Kyrgyz-Uzbek Border, 6 September 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/kyrgyzstan-uzbekistan-major-border-checkpoint-reopened/28720427.html

  88. 88.

    Sarah Zheng, China’s Djibouti military base: “logistics facility,” or platform for geopolitical ambitions overseas? South China Morning Post, 1 October 2017, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2113300/chinas-djibouti-military-base-logistics-facility-or?utm_source=t.co&utm_medium=referral

  89. 89.

    Minnie Chan, As overseas ambitions expand, China plans 400 per cent increase to marine corps numbers, sources say, South China Morning Post, 13 March 2017, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2078245/overseas-ambitions-expand-china-plans-400pc-increase

  90. 90.

    Office of the Secretary of Defense, Annual Report to Congress, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2017, 15 May 2017, https://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2017_China_Military_Power_Report.PDF

  91. 91.

    Christopher Lens, China’s Maritime Silk Road and Energy Geopolitics in the Indian Ocean: Motivations and Implications for the Region, in Erica Downs, Mikkal E. Herberg, Michael Kugelman, Christopher Len, and Kaho Yu, Asia’s Energy Security and China’s Belt and Road Initiative, National Bureau of Asian Research, November 2017, p. 47 http://nbr.org/publications/specialreport/pdf/free/010218/SR68_Asias_Energy_Security_November2017.pdf

  92. 92.

    Interview with the author, 10 November 2017

  93. 93.

    Costas Paris, Chinese Shipping Giants Seek Control of ‘Maritime Silk Road, The Wall Street Journal, 7 April 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinese-shipping-giants-seek-control-of-maritime-silk-road-1491557405

  94. 94.

    James Kynge, Chris Campbell, Amy Kazmin, and Farhan Bokhari, How China Rules the Waves, Financial Times, 12 January 2017, https://ig.ft.com/sites/china-ports

  95. 95.

    Rostilav Ishcenko, Putin’s Central Asia Tour? What’s at Stake, Fort Russ, 1 March 2017, http://www.fort-russ.com/2017/03/putins-central-asia-tour-whats-at-stake.html

  96. 96.

    Sputnik, Russia to Help Boost Tajik-Afghan Border Protection Using Russian Base—Putin, 27 February 2017, https://sputniknews.com/russia/201702271051082505-russia-tajikistan-afghanistan-putin/?mc_cid=0f7c66561d&mc_eid=f8da4b6ebe

  97. 97.

    Micha’el Tanchum, A Post-Sanctions Iran and the Eurasian Energy Architecture, Challenges and Opportunities for the Euro-Atlantic Community, Atlantic Council, September 2015, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/images/publications/Iran_Energy_Architecture_web_0925.pdf

  98. 98.

    Ayhan Demirbas, Hemaid Alsulami, and Abdul-Sattar Nizami, The natural gas potential of Saudi Arabia, Energy Sources: Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, Vol. 38:18, p. 2635–2642

  99. 99.

    Mishaal Al Gergawi, China Is Eyeballing a Major Strategic Investment in Saudi Arabia’s Oil, Foreign Policy, 26 October 2017, http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/10/26/china-is-eyeballing-a-major-strategic-investment-in-saudi-arabias-oil/

  100. 100.

    Emerge85, China’s Road to the Gulf, 11 October 2017, http://emerge85.io/report/the-road-to-the-gulf/

  101. 101.

    Bruce Pannier, The End Of The (Gas Pipe-) Line For Turkmenistan, Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, 16 March 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-gas-pipeline-china-berdymukhammedov-iran-russia/28353522.html

  102. 102.

    The Japan Times, Japan, China competing for construction projects in Asia, 28 January 2015, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/28/national/japan-china-competing-for-construction-projects-in-asia#.WO3DR_mGPcs

  103. 103.

    African Development Bank, Asia-Africa Growth Corridor, Partnership for Sustainable and Innovative Development, 22–26 May 2017, http://www.eria.org/Asia-Africa-Growth-Corridor-Document.pdf

  104. 104.

    Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Xi Jinping Attends Opening Ceremony of Sixth Ministerial Conference of China-Arab States Cooperation Forum and Delivers Important Speech Stressing to Promote Silk Road Spirit and Deepen China-Arab Cooperation, 5 June 2014, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1163554.shtml

  105. 105.

    Hillary Rodham Clinton, Remarks on India and the United States: A Vision for the 21st Century, US Department of State, 20 July 2011, https://2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2011/07/168840.htm

  106. 106.

    Anjana Pasricha, India’s New Afghan Trade Route Via Iran, Bypasses Pakistan, Voice of America, 30 October 2017, https://www.voanews.com/a/india-opens-new-afghan-trade-route-via-iran/4091915.html

  107. 107.

    https://twitter.com/narendramodi/status/924599231524073472?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw

  108. 108.

    Saeed Jalili, Iran: Chabahar Port promise and nuclear deal threat, Al Jazeera English, 4 December 2017, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/12/iran-chabahar-port-promise-nuclear-deal-threat-171203195238768.html

  109. 109.

    Regine A. Spector, The North-South Transport Corridor, Brookings, 3 July 2002, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-north-south-transport-corridor/

  110. 110.

    Paul Goble, North–South Transport Corridor: Russia Wins, Armenia Loses, Eurasia Daily Monitor, Vol. 14, Issue 145

  111. 111.

    Marat Guurt, Landlocked Central Asia gets shorter railway link to Persian Gulf, Reuters, 3 December 2014, https://in.reuters.com/article/turkmenistan-railway-idINKCN0JH1Q820141203

  112. 112.

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Dorsey, J.M. (2019). Towards a New World Order. In: China and the Middle East. Global Political Transitions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64355-7_2

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