Abstract
Acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) is defined as an acute necro-inflammatory disease of the gallbladder in the absence of cholelithiasis and has a multifactorial pathogenesis [1, 2]. It was first reported by Duncan in 1844 when reporting a fatal case of AAC complicating an incarcerated hernia. AAC affects both adults and children although certain demographics are susceptible depending on the underlying illness. Although the incidence of AAC has been rising steadily since the 1970s [3], the true incidence remains difficult to determine.
References
Owen CC, Jain R. Acute acalculous cholecystitis. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol. 2005;8(2):99–104.
Barie PS, Eachempati SR. Acute acalculous cholecystitis. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 2010;39(2):343–57. x
Glenn F, Becker CG. Acute acalculous cholecystitis. An increasing entity. Ann Surg. 1982;195(2):131–6.
Ryu JK, Ryu KH, Kim KH. Clinical features of acute acalculous cholecystitis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2003;36(2):166–9.
Kalliafas S, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis: incidence, risk factors, diagnosis, and outcome. Am Surg. 1998;64(5):471–5.
Liu F-L, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis immediately after gastric operation: case report and literatures review. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20(30):10642–50.
Abdur-Rahman OL, Adeniran OJ, Nasir AA. Outcome of acalculous cholecystitis from typhoid in Nigerian children. J Natl Med Assoc. 2009;101(7):717–9.
Axelrod D, Karakas SP. Acalculous cholecystitis and abscess as a manifestation of typhoid fever. Pediatr Radiol. 2007;37(2):237.
Benjelloun el B, et al. A case report of acute acalculous cholecystitis due to Salmonella Paratyphi B complicated by biliary peritonitis. Pan Afr Med J. 2013;16:127.
Commons R, Dimitriou J, Campbell I. Acalculous cholecystitis caused by Salmonella virchow. ANZ J Surg. 2008;78(6):514.
Udayakumar D, Sanaullah M. Campylobacter cholecystitis. Int J Med Sci. 2009;6(6):374–5.
Brewer L, et al. Streptococcus agalactiae endocarditis presenting as acalculous cholecystitis in a previously well woman. BMJ Case Rep. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2012-008278.
Chen PL, et al. Respiratory failure and acalculous cholecystitis in a patient with AIDS and disseminated tuberculosis: masking effect of fluoroquinolone monotherapy and immune restoration syndrome. Int J Infect Dis. 2009;13(4):e165–8.
Chong VH, Goh SK. Leptospirosis presenting as acute acalculous cholecystitis and pancreatitis. Ann Acad Med Singap. 2007;36(3):215–6.
Dezsi CA, et al. Empyema thoracis, hemorrhagic pericarditis and acalculous cholecystitis caused by Eikenella corrodens sepsis. Orv Hetil. 2013;154(47):1873–6.
Ergas D, Abdul-Hai A, Sthoeger ZM. Acalculous cholecystitis: an unusual presentation of acute Q fever masquerading as infectious endocarditis. Am J Med Sci. 2008;336(4):356–7.
Figtree M, et al. Q fever cholecystitis in an unvaccinated butcher diagnosed by gallbladder polymerase chain reaction. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2010;10(4):421–3.
Kim JH, et al. First report of human acute acalculous cholecystitis caused by the fish pathogen Lactococcus garvieae. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51(2):712–4.
Tena D, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis complicated with peritonitis caused by Lactobacillus plantarum. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;76(4):510–2.
Agholi M, et al. First detection of acalculous cholecystitis associated with Sarcocystis infection in a patient with AIDS. Acta Parasitol. 2014;59(2):310–5.
Alave J, et al. Acalculous Cholecystitis caused by Histoplasma capsulatum in a severely immunosuppressed HIV-infected patient. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2011;5(3):235–8.
Arya SO, et al. Epstein Barr virus-associated acute acalculous cholecystitis: a rare occurrence but favorable outcome. Clin Pediatr. 2010;49(8):799–804.
Attilakos A, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in children with Epstein-Barr virus infection: a role for Gilbert's syndrome? Int J Infect Dis. 2009;13(4):e161–4.
Chalupa P, Kaspar M, Holub M. Acute acalculous cholecystitis with pericholecystitis in a patient with Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucleosis. Med Sci Monit. 2009;15(2):CS30–3.
Basar O, et al. An unusual cause of acalculous cholecystitis during pregnancy: hepatitis A virus. Dig Dis Sci. 2005;50(8):1532.
Bouyahia O, et al. Hepatitis A: a rare cause of acalculous cholecystitis in children. Med Maladies Infect. 2008;38(1):34–5.
Fuoti M, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis as a complication of hepatitis A: report of 2 pediatric cases. Pediatr Med Chir. 2008;30(2):102–5.
Tresallet C, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection revealed by an acute acalculous cholecystitis. J Radiol. 2010;91(7–8):813–5.
Berrington WR, Hitti J, Casper C. A case report of dengue virus infection and acalculous cholecystitis in a pregnant returning traveler. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2007;5(4):251–3.
Bhatty S, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in dengue fever. J Pak Med Assoc. 2009;59(8):519–21.
Goh BK, Tan SG. Case of dengue virus infection presenting with acute acalculous cholecystitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21(5):923–4.
Brent AJ, et al. Acute cholecystitis complicating mumps. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(2):302–3.
Frohlich R, Rommele U. Acalculous cholecystitis in hantavirus infections. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2013;138(23):1255–8.
Gora-Gebka M, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis of viral etiology—a rare condition in children? J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43(1):e25–7.
Guner R, et al. A case of Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever complicated with acalculous cholecystitis and intraabdominal abscess. J Clin Virol. 2011;50(2):162–3.
Abreu C, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in malaria: a review of seven cases from an adult cohort. Infection. 2013;41(4):821–6.
Carvalho D, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in a patient with severe malaria. Acta Medica Portuguesa. 2011;24(Suppl 3):631–4.
Hayakawa K, et al. A case of scrub typhus with acalculous cholecystitis, aseptic meningitis and mononeuritis multiplex. J Med Microbiol. 2012;61(Pt 2):291–4.
Malik AA, Wani RA, Bari S. Acute acalculous cholecystitis due to Taenia saginata. Ann Saudi Med. 2008;28(5):388–9.
Grosser J, Solomon H, Sotelo-Avila C. Acalculous candidal cholecystitis after pediatric renal transplant. Pediatr Transplant. 2011;15(4):E71–5.
Bando H, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis induced by mesenteric inflammatory veno-occlusive disease (MIVOD) in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol. 2003;22(6):447–9.
Basiratnia M, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in a child with systemic lupus erythematosus. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;21(6):873–6.
Cheng YL, Lee KC, Luo JC. A young woman presenting with jaundice. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(2):e1–2.
Chen CJ, et al. Sonographic gallbladder abnormality is associated with intravenous immunoglobulin resistance in Kawasaki disease. Scientific World J. 2012;2012:485758.
Francescutti V, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis: an unusual presenting feature of Churg-Strauss vasculitis. Can J Surg. 2008;51(6):E129–30.
Hegarty J, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus, eosinophilic vasculitis and acalculous cholecystitis. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2006;21(3):792–5.
Meier M, Holl-Ulrich K, Perras B. A rare manifestation of cryoglobulinemic vasculitis: acalculous cholecystitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3(10):xxvi.
Kara E, Ayden H. Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS) presenting as splenic thrombosis and acute acalculous cholecystitis. Acta Chir Belg. 2004;104(6):733–5.
Sanches BF, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in a patient with juvenile dermatomyositis. BMJ Case Rep. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2014-205066.
Wang AJ, et al. Clinical predictors of severe gallbladder complications in acute acalculous cholecystitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2003;9(12):2821–3.
Hill AG, Collins JP. Acute acalculous cholecystitis. Aust N Z J Surg. 1994;64(4):251–3.
Inagaki FF, et al. Acute and chronic acalculous cholecystitis associated with aortic dissection. J Surg Case Rep. 2015;2015(8):rjv101.
Sogutlu G, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis induced by aortic dissection: report of a case. TJTES. 2010;16(3):283–5.
Bai LY, et al. Acalculous cholecystitis mimicking plasma cell leukemia. Ann Hematol. 2006;85(7):487–8.
Bilanovic D, et al. Granular cell tumor of the common hepatic duct presenting as cholangiocarcinoma and acute acalculous cholecystitis. Acta Chir Iugosl. 2008;55(4):99–101.
Takeda K, et al. Unusual presentation of multiple recurrent cardiac sarcomas as acute acalculous cholecystitis caused by rapid expansion into the right cardiac chamber: report of a case. Surg Today. 2012;42(5):479–81.
Ahmed N. Acute acalculous cholecystitis complicating major trauma: a report of five cases. South Med J. 2008;101(11):1146–9.
Buffone A, et al. Acute postoperative acalculous cholecystitis. Chir Ital. 2005;57(6):743–8.
Iwata T, et al. A case of acalcuous cholecystitis developed after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. J UOEH. 2009;31(1):57–62.
Katsinelos P, et al. Fatal acute acalculous cholecystitis as an early complication after radiation therapy. Chirurgia (Bucuresti). 2008;103(2):223–6.
Miloh T, et al. T-cell PTLD presenting as acalculous cholecystitis. Pediatr Transplant. 2008;12(6):717–20.
Senthilkumaran S, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis: a rare complication of snake bite. Wilderness Environ Med. 2013;24(3):277–9.
Shin YH, et al. A five-year-old boy with nephrotic syndrome complicated with acute acalculous cholecystitis. Pediatr Int. 2007;49(5):674–6.
Milone M, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis determining Mirizzi syndrome: case report and literature review. BMC Surg. 2014;14:90.
Rojo P, et al. Outpatient treatment with corticosteroids and antibiotics for acalculous cholecystitis in chronic granulomatous disease. Acta Paediatr. 2005;94(11):1684–6.
Shridhar Ganpathi I, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis: challenging the myths. HPB (Oxford). 2007;9(2):131–4.
Chen PF, et al. The clinical diagnosis of chronic acalculous cholecystitis. Surgery. 2001;130(4):578–81. discussion 581-3.
Theodorou P, et al. Acalculous cholecystitis in severely burned patients: incidence and predisposing factors. Burns. 2009;35(3):405–11.
Sessions SC, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis following open heart surgery. Am Surg. 1993;59(2):74–7.
Wendel AV. VI. A case of floating gall-bladder and kidney complicated by cholelithiasis, with perforation of the gall-bladder. Ann Surg. 1898;27(2):199–202.
Shaikh AA, et al. Gallbladder volvulus: report of two original cases and review of the literature. Am Surg. 2005;71(1):87–9.
Cornwell EE, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in critically injured patients. Preoperative diagnostic imaging. Ann Surg. 1989;210(1):52–5.
McChesney JA, Northup PG, Bickston SJ. Acute acalculous cholecystitis associated with systemic sepsis and visceral arterial hypoperfusion: a case series and review of pathophysiology. Dig Dis Sci. 2003;48(10):1960–7.
Thomas CG Jr, Womack NA. Acute cholecystitis, its pathogenesis and repair. AMA Arch Surg. 1952;64(5):590–600.
Matsusaki S, et al. Clinical features of acute acalculous cholecystits-nosocomial manner and community-acquired manner. Nihon Shokakibyo Gakkai Zasshi. 2008;105(12):1749–57.
Cullen JJ, et al. Effect of endotoxin on opossum gallbladder motility: a model of acalculous cholecystitis. Ann Surg. 2000;232(2):202–7.
Orlando R III, Gleason E, Drezner AD. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in the critically ill patient. Am J Surg. 1983;145(4):472–6.
Hakala T, et al. Microangiopathy in acute acalculous cholecystitis. Br J Surg. 1997;84(9):1249–52.
Kaminski DL, et al. Studies on the etiology of acute acalculous cholecystitis: the effect of lipopolysaccharide on human gallbladder mucosal cells. Prostaglandins. 1994;47(4):319–30.
Taoka H. Experimental study on the pathogenesis of acute acalculous cholecystitis, with special reference to the roles of microcirculatory disturbances, free radicals and membrane-bound phospholipase A2. Gastroenterol Jpn. 1991;26(5):633–44.
Mouawad NJ, et al. Acute gallbladder torsion—a continued pre-operative diagnostic dilemma. World J Emerg Surg. 2011;6(1):1749–7922.
Laurila JJ, et al. Histopathology of acute acalculous cholecystitis in critically ill patients. Histopathology. 2005;47(5):485–92.
Laurila JJ, et al. Tight junction proteins in gallbladder epithelium: different expression in acute acalculous and calculous cholecystitis. J Histochem Cytochem. 2007;55(6):567–73.
Vakkala M, et al. Cellular turnover and expression of hypoxic-inducible factor in acute acalculous and calculous cholecystitis. Crit Care. 2007;11(5):R116.
Kaminski DL, et al. The role of prostanoids in the production of acute acalculous cholecystitis by platelet-activating factor. Ann Surg. 1990;212(4):455–61.
Goenka U, et al. Spontaneous perforation of acalculous gall bladder presenting as acute abdomen. J Emerg Med. 2012;43(4):637–40.
Pelinka LE, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis after trauma: a prospective study. J Trauma. 2003;55(2):323–9.
Ueno D, et al. Emergent laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute acalculous cholecystitis revisited. Surg Today. 2015;24:24.
Tsakayannis DE, Kozakewich HPW, Lillehei CW. Acalculous cholecystitis in children. J Pediatr Surg. 1996;31(1):127–31.
Puc MM, et al. Ultrasound is not a useful screening tool for acute acalculous cholecystitis in critically ill trauma patients. Am Surg. 2002;68(1):65.
Mirvis SE, et al. The diagnosis of acute acalculous cholecystitis: a comparison of sonography, scintigraphy, and CT. Am J Roentgenol. 1986;147(6):1171–5.
Prevot N, et al. Contribution of cholescintigraphy to the early diagnosis of acute acalculous cholecystitis in intensive-care-unit patients. Eur J Nucl Med. 1999;26(10):1317–25.
Mariat G, et al. Contribution of ultrasonography and cholescintigraphy to the diagnosis of acute acalculous cholecystitis in intensive care unit patients. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26(11):1658–63.
Deitch EA, Engel JM. Ultrasound in elective biliary tract surgery. Am J Surg. 1980;140(2):277–83.
Ahvenjarvi L, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of computed tomography imaging of surgically treated acute acalculous cholecystitis in critically ill patients. J Trauma. 2011;70(1):183–8.
Blankenberg F, et al. Computed tomography as an adjunct to ultrasound in the diagnosis of acute acalculous cholecystitis. Gastrointest Radiol. 1991;16(1):149–53.
İmamoğlu M, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in children: diagnosis and treatment. J Pediatr Surg. 2002;37(1):36–9.
Guidelines for diagnostic laparoscopy. Society of American Gastroenterological and Endoscopic Surgeons 10th October 2015. www.sages.org/publications/guidelines.
Brandt CP, Priebe PP, Jacobs DG. Value of laparoscopy in trauma ICU patients with suspected acute acalculous cholecystitis. Surg Endosc. 1994;8(5):361–4. discussion 364-5
Gagné DJ, et al. Bedside diagnostic minilaparoscopy in the intensive care patient. Surgery. 2002;131(5):491–6.
Gu MG, et al. Risk factors and therapeutic outcomes of acute acalculous cholecystitis. Digestion. 2014;90(2):75–80.
Huffman JL, Schenker S. Acute acalculous cholecystitis: a review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010;8(1):15–22.
Anderson JE, et al. Cholecystostomy offers no survival benefit in patients with acute acalculous cholecystitis and severe sepsis and shock. J Surg Res. 2014;190(2):517–21.
Poole GH, Yellapu S. Acute laparoscopic cholecystectomy. A case controlled study. Surg Endosc. 2000;14(2):106–9.
Chung YH, et al. Can percutaneous cholecystostomy be a definitive management for acute acalculous cholecystitis? J Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;46(3):216–9.
Smith TJ, et al. Changing trends and outcomes in the use of percutaneous cholecystostomy tubes for acute cholecystitis. Ann Surg. 2013;257(6):1112–5.
Boland GW, et al. Percutaneous cholecystostomy in critically ill patients: early response and final outcome in 82 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1994;163(2):339–42.
Cherng N, et al. Use of cholecystostomy tubes in the management of patients with primary diagnosis of acute cholecystitis. J Am Coll Surg. 2012;214(2):196–201.
Yang HK, Hodgson WJ. Laparoscopic cholecystostomy for acute acalculous cholecystitis. Surg Endosc. 1996;10(6):673–5.
Carr HA. A short history of the Foley catheter: from handmade instrument to infection-prevention device. J Endourol. 2000;14(1):5–8.
Johlin FC Jr, Neil GA. Drainage of the gallbladder in patients with acute acalculous cholecystitis by transpapillary endoscopic cholecystotomy. Gastrointest Endosc. 1993;39(5):645–51.
Ford JA, et al. Systematic review of intraoperative cholangiography in cholecystectomy. Br J Surg. 2012;99(2):160–7.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Su’a, B., Hill, A.G., Poole, G.H. (2018). Acute Acalculous Cholecystitis. In: Cox, M., Eslick, G., Padbury, R. (eds) The Management of Gallstone Disease. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63884-3_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63884-3_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-63882-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-63884-3
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)