Abstract
This chapter discusses sustainable human development (SHD) and peacebuilding. These two conceptual paradigms are applied in the context of conflict-affected communities. The Right to Self-Determination is also explained as part of human rights and human need discussions about SHD. Given the dynamism in the theory and practice of development studies and conflict and peace studies, the two main theoretical frameworks, namely sustainable human development and peacebuilding, are distinguished from other theories and concepts. Theories and concepts of sustainable development, poverty reduction, and human security are explained in contrast to SHD. While peacebuilding is defined by laying the foundations of the definitions and meaning of peace in general, international peacebuilding and post-conflict development are also reviewed as related conceptual frameworks. Further, the differences and convergences of peacebuilding and conflict resolution are also discussed.
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Notes
- 1.
The human development concept is explained here in relation to the basic needs theory which was introduced earlier. Streeten (1995: ix) says the basic needs concept is centred on the possession of commodities which often the poor do not have.
- 2.
See United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Website; see also Ul Haq (1995: 14).
- 3.
Alkire explains these sustainable human development components as plural principles that cannot be prioritized (in terms of ranking) but are all equally at play in achieving sustainable human development, Alkire (2010: 28–30). The UNHDR (2010: 117) concludes that considering the improvements in human development, there continues to be widespread dissatisfaction with key aspects of life, like security. Therefore, this substantiates the importance of attaining all these plural principles or components when advancing the cause of sustainable human development. While improvements in indicators in education, health, and income may be good, it is equally important to note the ways and means it can be accessed by individuals and groups and the degree to which improvements correspond to people’s needs and aspirations.
- 4.
See UNHDR (2010: 22). A similar definition was offered by Alkire (2010: 37–40).
- 5.
See Alkire (2010: 40). It is this shorter version of the definition that the research used in explaining this development concept to the conflict-affected communities during the PRA/PLA workshops.
- 6.
See Alkire (2010: 43–44). This longer version of the definition is added here to show the multidimensional aspect of the concept, which includes human rights, freedoms and capabilities as part of human development goals.
- 7.
- 8.
Sen and Nussbaum worked together on the concept of capability and agency. Sen and Anand cooperated in developing the human development index (HDI) among others.
- 9.
Drydyk (2011: 39–61) thoroughly discusses these incompatibilities, citing the capability list of Vizard and Nussbaum when explaining this dilemma. In this regard, he proposes the application of responsible pluralism in approaching capabilities as human rights.
- 10.
See Vizard et al. (2011), Nussbaum (2011), Drydyk (2011), Burchardt/Vizard (2011). Sen argued that the development of capability lists cannot be fixed but is subject to deliberations based on various contexts and considerations. See Burchardt/Vizard (2011: 95). Contrary to this, Nussbaum did come up with a central capability list and explains how capability should be perceived as a species of human rights. Therefore, there are central capabilities that must be secured as the basis of people’s real needs and urgent entitlements; see Nussbaum (2011: 23–37).
- 11.
This has been done in a measurement framework of the Commission for Equality and Human Rights, or EHRC in the United Kingdom; see Burchardt/Vizard (2011).
- 12.
Askwith explains how the poverty reduction approach at the World Bank also includes several aspects of human development areas which directly and indirectly contribute to the attainment of poverty reduction at the country levels. See Askwith (1994: 23–24, 34–36).
- 13.
This calculation uses the Philippine Central Bank foreign exchange rate of USD 1.00 is PhP 41.83 (rounded off to the tenth place); at: http://www.bsp.gov.ph/statistics/sdds/exchrate.htm (1 August 2012).
- 14.
Cited in “The History of Sustainable Development in the United Nations”.
- 15.
See the report “Our Common Future”; at: www.un-documents.net/ocf-ov.htm#1.2 (14 October 2011).
- 16.
To review the similarities and differences of human development and sustainable development, in terms of topics, see the United Nations; at: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/67/757&Lang=E (21 January 2013), and the Global and Regional HDR; at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2011/ (20 October 2011).
- 17.
Human Development Report (1994: 23), Chapter 2.
- 18.
Human Development Report (1994: 23), Chapter 2.
- 19.
This was cited by Streeten on ul Haq’s work on human security in ul Haq (1995: xv–xvi).
- 20.
See Article 1 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights/International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICCPR/ICESCR), and Article 1 (2) UN Charter; at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cescr.htm (17 February 2013). Also see Article 20 (1) African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR); at: http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/#a20 (17 February 2013).
- 21.
Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly, 61/295, The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
- 22.
This section is partly adapted from the article by Abubakar/Askandar (2011: 48–151).
- 23.
As Inge Kaul explains in the HDR video documentary, “People First: The Human Development Reports”, HDR-UNDP website; at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/mediacentre/videos/humandev/ (28 June 2012).
- 24.
See Paul Streeten, in ul Haq (1995: xii).
- 25.
Ibid. For more discussion on the controversies behind the introduction of the political freedom index, see ul Haq (1995: 67–69).
- 26.
Overton (2000–2011).
- 27.
In September 2003, the Philippine government requested the World Bank to set-up a multi-donor trust fund that could start work on the rehabilitation and development of the conflict-affected areas. This resulted in a Joint Needs Assessment (JNA) conducted in 2004 and completed in 2005. Meanwhile, the Japanese government has been undertaking consultations on its plan to take part in the ongoing peace process between the GRP and the MILF since 2005. Finally, upon some initial assessment as a result of the Consolidation for Peace Seminar 1 for Mindanao and Aceh, organized by the Research and Education for Peace-Universiti Sains Malaysia (REPUSM) and JICA in January 2006, the Japanese government officially announced its involvement in Mindanao on that same year. On the other hand, the United Nations, through its UNDP, is not yet fully engaged in the GRP-MILF peace process. They, however, continue to operate their Act for Peace Programme as part of the GRP-MNLF post-conflict development implementation.
- 28.
As a result, both USAID and EU contributed to the World Bank Mindanao Trust Fund-Reconstruction and Development Programme (MTF-RDP). While the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Philippines do have the experience of post-conflict development in its Act for Peace Programme for the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) communities, it was agreed upon among these international agencies that, for the MILF peace process, it is the World Bank that will take the lead in initiating development programming for the MILF communities.
- 29.
See the World Bank Website on MTF-RDP General Information, at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPSOCDEV/Resources/MTFRDPGeneralInformation.pdf and the news on BDA partnership.
- 30.
See Balisacan (2005: ix).
- 31.
See “Executive Summary”, Human Development for Peace and Prosperity in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (Manila: The World Bank Human Development Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region, November 2003).
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
In Lederach (1997), Galtung (2000, 2002), Kamarulzaman (2005), and Cockell, in “Peacebuilding and Human Security Frameworks for International Responses to Internal Conflict” in Peter Wallensteen (ed.), Preventing Violent Conflicts: Past Record and Future Challenges, Report No. 48, (Uppsala, Sweden: Department of Peace and Conflict Resolution, Uppsala University, 1998).
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
Galtung, Johan, Jacobsen, Carl G. and Brand-Jacobsen, Kai Frithjof, Searching for Peace, The Road to Transcend (London, Sterling, Virginia: Pluto Press, 2000, 2002).
- 36.
The Transcend Group led by Johan Galtung espouses a basic formula for peace by peaceful means, transforming attitudes through empathy, behaviour through non-violence/peace struggle, and contradiction through creativity. For more discussions on this philosophy, see Galtung et al. (2000, 2002: 16–24).
- 37.
Woodhouse, T., “Adam Curle: Radical Peacemaker and Pioneer of Peace Studies”, in Journal of Conflictology, Vol. 1, Issue 1 (2010), (Spain: Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 2010): 4; at: http://www.uoc.edu/ojs/index.php/journal-of-conflictology/article/view/vol1iss1-woodhouse (5 November 2011).
- 38.
Ibid., p. 24.
- 39.
Askandar, Kamarulzaman, and Abubakar, Ayesah, “Foreword”, in Mastura, Datu Michael, Bangsamoro Quest: The Birth of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (Penang: SEACSN and REPUSM, 2012): xii–xiii.
- 40.
See Askandar, Kamarulzaman, “Peacebuilding in Southeast Asia: Overview, Observations, and the Way Forward”, in The Official Newsletter of the Southeast Asian Conflict Studies Network Bulletin, January–June 2005 (Penang: SEACSN, 2005), pp. 26–27.
- 41.
In an earlier work of Lederach, he mentions the four paradoxes of peacemaking – personal and systemic transformation, justice and mercy, process and outcome, and empowerment and interdependence. He explains, however, that these seeming paradoxes are, in fact, key to shaping a “transformative peacemaking” that is “based on understanding fair, respectful, and inclusive process as a way of life and envisions outcome as a commitment to increasing justice, seeking truth and healing relationships”. See Lederach, John Paul, Preparing for Peace: Conflict Transformations Across Cultures (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1995), pp. 11–22.
- 42.
For more discussions on conflict transformers by Lederach, see Lederach (1997: 81–85); and on conflict transformers by Väyrynen, see Miall, Hugh, “Conflict Transformation: A Multi-Dimensional Task”, in Austin, Alex, Fischer, Martina, Ropers, Norbert (eds.), Transforming Ethnopolitical Conflict: The Berghof Handbook (Germany: VS Verlag Fur Sozialwissenschaften, 2004): 77–79.
- 43.
Ramsbotham et al. (2011: 199). See also peacebuilding as part of an institutional adjustment in Jeong, Ho-Won, Peacebuilding in Postconflict Societies (USA: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005): 1–3.
- 44.
In this study, conflict resolution is defined according to inter-state and intra-state conflicts, although the history of this field involves a very wide area that includes peacemaking, mediation and arbitration, conciliation and dialogue, labour management, problem-solving workshops, alternative dispute resolution, de-escalation and confidence-building measures, among many others. For a historical background of the development of this field, see the article by Kriesberg, Louis, “Conflict Resolution: An Overview”, in Young, Nigel J., The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace (UK & US: Oxford University Press, 2010).
- 45.
Crews, Robin, “Conflict Resolution, Peace Research, Studies, and Activism”; and Miall, Hugh, “Conflict Studies Versus Peace Studies”, in Young, Nigel J., The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace (UK & US: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 440–445.
- 46.
See various chapters of Burton, John, Conflict: Human Needs Theory (New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc., 1990).
- 47.
- 48.
Ibid., Askandar (2005).
- 49.
The Consolidation for Peace Program involves the main actors and other stakeholders in the case of the Mindanao and the Aceh Groups. However, in the case of Southern Thailand, mostly civil society groups have been involved. The programme not only provides an internal dialogue among the stakeholders within the conflict area, but also offers a venue for sharing their learnings with similar groups. For more information on the COP, see unpublished proceedings from the period of 2007–2012, The Consolidation for Peace Program (Penang: REPUSM/SEACSN). This kind of group dynamic has been recognized by Curle as part of the contribution of citizen peacemaking in his article, “New Challenges for Citizen Peacemaking”, in Medicine and War, Vol. 10:2, pp. 96–105 (UK: Routledge, 1994). Also, the ideas on initiatives such as the COP as an important platform are discussed in Curle’s work, Making Peace (London: Tavistock Publications, 1971), Part II – The Practice of Peacemaking.
- 50.
See the discussions on Track II diplomacy, like problem-solving workshops, as part of the multi-track conflict resolution, in Ramsbotham et al. (2011: 25–30). Also discussed in Mitchell, Christopher, 2001, From Controlled Communication to Problem Solving: The Origins of Facilitated Conflict Resolution, in The International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 6, Number 1, ISSN 1085-7494; at: http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol6_1/Mitchell2.htm, accessed 20 July 2012. Earlier discussion can be found in Curle, Adam (1994), “New Challenges for Citizen Peacemaking”, Medicine and War, Vol. 10:2 (UK: Routledge); and Curle, Adam (1971), Making Peace (London: Tavistock Publications).
- 51.
See Kamarulzaman, A. and Abubakar, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the Consolidation for Peace Seminar 2: Building Sustainable Peace in Aceh, Mindanao and Southern Thailand, 2008 (SEACSN: Penang); and Peace for Mindanao, 2009 (Penang: SEACSN), pp. 9–11.
- 52.
Annan, Kofi (1998), “The Causes of Conflict and the Promotion of Durable Peace and Sustainable Peace in Africa”, Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council, par. 63.
- 53.
Paris likens international peacebuilding to a “mission civilisatrice” or a mission by the European imperial powers in the colonial era of carrying out their duty to civilize other populations and territories. Although he is very critical of how peacebuilding can be used for various interests of richer countries on the poorer ones, he, however, makes it clear that there is no basis for saying that richer countries profit from their peacebuilding activities. In the end, he concludes that peacebuilding remains a noble agenda of ensuring an international system that affirms the state as a political unit – see Paris, Roland, “International peacebuilding and the mission civilisatrice”, Review of International Studies (2002), 28, 637–656 (UK: British International Studies Association, 2002).
- 54.
Ibid., as cited by Junne and Verkoren, p. 10.
- 55.
This is discussed in several parts by Askandar, Kamarulzaman, in the “Introduction”, Building Peace: Reflections from Southeast Asia (Penang: SEACSN, 2007), and in Askandar, Kamarulzaman (ed.), “Rethinking Conflict Management in Southeast Asia”, Management and Conflict Resolution of Inter-State Conflicts in Southeast Asia, (Penang: SEACSN, 2002), pp. xvii–xxxvi.
- 56.
Stockholm Initiative on Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration – Background Studies (Sweden: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 2005), p. 12; and in various chapters of case studies from around the world in the same book.
- 57.
Stockholm Initiative on Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration – Final Report (Sweden: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2006), p. 31.
- 58.
Interviews with MNLF members aligned with Chair Nur Misuari and those who are non-aligned with him and now part of the UNDP Act for Peace Programme, located in General Santos and Saranggani areas, June 2008.
- 59.
See “Report of the Secretary General on the Question of Muslims in the Southern Philippines”, in the Report of the Secretary General on Muslim Minorities and Communities in Non-OIC Member States Submitted to the 33rd Session of the International Conference of Foreign Ministers, held in Baku, Republic of Azerbaijan, on 19–21 June 2006.
- 60.
The concept of human security is gaining more acceptance from the international community, in contrast, and as a response, to the traditional view of “state security” in the realm of international politics. Human security is defined as the “freedom from fear and want.”
- 61.
The World Bank was formerly known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development that took the role of “post-conflict rehabilitation” in Europe.
- 62.
See World Bank Conflict Prevention Unit Website; at: www.worldbank.org.
- 63.
Interviews by the author with WB staff, BRA staff, and GAM ex-combatants in Aceh in April 2007.
- 64.
As in the case of Mindanao while the peace process is still ongoing and the conflict remains – as attested by the continued armed violence and asymmetrical relations between the government and the Bangsamoro people, development programmes continue to be implemented by the government, the international donor community and local non-government organizations. Thus, this phenomenon can be termed “on-conflict development”, meaning a kind of development in an ongoing conflict and peace process situation.
- 65.
For more discussions about the criticisms of local and international actors in their contestation for local ownership, see Donais, Timothy, “Empowerment or Imposition? Dilemmas of Local Ownership in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding Processes”, Peace & Change, Vol. 34, No. 1, January 2009 (Wiley-Blackwell); at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0130.2009.00531.x/pdf (7 August 2012).
- 66.
Moore, Keith M, et al., “What We Have Learned”, in Moore, Keith M. (ed.), Conflict, Social Capital and Managing Natural Resources: A West African Case Study (UK and USA: CABI Publishing, 2005), p. 249. The Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (SANREM) in West Africa is a programme of the USAID with universities in the US led by Virginia Tech. This programme made use of Participatory Landscape/Lifescape Appraisal (PLLA), similar to PRA, and conflict management training in order to actively involve the community. This region of West Africa has experienced violent conflict among the different communities due to their competing access to and use of natural resources. The SANREM programme was aimed at improving this conflict situation and instead making the communities work together, since they all seek a healthy economy and environment.
- 67.
The SZOPAD covered the 152 provinces throughout Mindanao that included both the Muslim and non-Muslim areas as part of a reconciliation process and general strengthening of the peace and order situation in the region.
- 68.
However, as soon as the SZOPAD, SPCPD and the CA were established, they faced intense opposition from the non-Muslim local executives/political leaders. MNLF Chair Nur Misuari was installed as the head of both the SPCPD and the CA, but eventually ended up exerting very weak influence as leader of these organizations, while much of their workings and decisions emanated from the Office of the President. The SPCPD was technically abolished when the new ARMM Law or RA 9054 was approved in a plebiscite on 14 August 2011, signalling the start of Phase 2 or the New Autonomy. However, it was only on 11 March 2002 that the three institutions were officially closed down by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo.
- 69.
The complete list of specific projects identified in EO 371 is enumerated by Fr. Eliseo Mercado in his speech, “The 10th Anniversary of the Historic Final Peace Agreement between the GRP-MNLF: A Personal Note”, GRP-MNLF Peace Agreement Memorial Lectures (Cotabato City: IAG, 2006).
- 70.
Ibid.
- 71.
Maulana, Nash B., Kadtabanga: The Struggle Continues (Cotabato City: GoP-ACT for Peace Programme, 2009): IX–X.
- 72.
It was only in early 1997 that the GoP-UN-MDP started its needs assessment, pilot-testing and other preparatory work.
- 73.
The SPCPD was created as part of an interim phase in transition to the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) that should have been made more powerful as part of the MNLF agreement. The MEDCO is a government agency put under the Office of the President. It serves as the main source of economic development planning and programming for Mindanao. One of its tasks is to coordinate the bulk of international donor funding and interventions for Mindanao, since this is one region that attracts immense funding. There is no other similar agency put in place in the regions of Luzon and Visayas. MEDCO is also assigned as the representing government agency in the Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines-East Asia Growth Area (BIMP-EAGA), which is an economic and trade partnership linking Mindanao to these three neighboring countries. In 2010, MEDCO became the bigger Mindanao Development Authority or MinDA. For more information about MinDA’s role, see at: www.minda.gov.ph.
- 74.
This criticism was mentioned as part of a review of the peace agreement ten years later in Fr. Eliseo Mercado’s speech (2006), op cit. The number of MNLF former combatants is quoted from the speech of MNLF Maj. Gen. Abdul Sahrin during the Bangsamoro People’s National Congress, 23 December 2003 in Davao City, published in The Bangsamoro Parsugpatan, March 2004 (Cotabato City: ARMM Publication, 2004), p. 30. However, a UN Report puts the number of former combatants at 70,000 in Curry, S. (Team Leader), Assessment of Development Results: The Republic of the Philippines (US: UNDP, 2010), p. 42.
- 75.
The numbers are quoted from Fr. Eliseo Mercado’s speech (2006). However, the numbers do vary depending on the source – whether it is the government, MNLF, or other stakeholders who are discussing this issue.
- 76.
It is mainly the United Nations Development Programme – as part of the greater UN institution that played the key role in the post-conflict development for the MNLF communities. However, other UN agencies were also brought in to provide other projects that could help this task of development in Mindanao. Thus, the programme was formally known as the Government of the Philippines-United Nations-Multi Donor Programme.
- 77.
Email interview with Ms. Diosita Andot, Programme Manager of the ACT for Peace Programme, 28 March 2012.
- 78.
These objectives are translated as Outcomes in Fig. 1. The Rationale and Implementation Process of the Programme.
- 79.
The formation of PDCs was initially based on ‘sitios’ (inside the baranggay local government unit) where précised groupings of MNLF combatants and their families were located. However, this PDC formation was later on expanded to comprise one or more baranggays. Eventually, for purposes of organization and synchronization to baranggay development planning, a PDC was duly identified as a baranggay itself. Therefore the 278 PDCs were equivalent to 278 baranggays.
- 80.
The operations in the CARAGA region included the provinces of Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte, and Agusan del Sur.
- 81.
Telephone interview with Mr. Suharto Abas, former ARMM Project Manager for ACT for Peace Programme, 5 April 2012.
- 82.
Email interview with Ms. Diosita Andot, 2012.
- 83.
Ibid.
- 84.
Chair Nur Misuari became Chair of the SPCPD.
- 85.
MEDCO was established in 1992 but was later expanded and renamed Mindanao Development Authority (MINDA) in 2010.
- 86.
Caraga is the administrative region of Region XIII, located in Northeastern Mindanao. It is composed of the provinces of Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Dinagat Islands, Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur.
- 87.
The MNLF leadership became problematic when Chair Nur Misuari fled to Sabah and was later incarcerated in Manila. This led to Hatimil Hassan taking over as Chair in December 2003 – representing the MNLF Executive Council group, while there is also the Islamic Command Council group; the Alvarez Isnaji group; and the Misuari Breakaway Group as the fourth grouping of fragmented MNLF leadership.
- 88.
See activities of the ARMM Regional Planning and Development Office; at: http://rpdo.armm.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14&Itemid=69 (22 June 2012). See the recommendations in the ACT for Peace Mid-Term Review, 30 May 2008. The perceived limited involvement of the MNLF leadership has also been discussed during field interviews with MNLF commanders in Cotabato City, Saranggani, and Manila in May to July 2008; and during a telephone interview with Mr. Suharto Abas, former ARMM ACT for Peace Programme Manager, 2012.
- 89.
Interview with Ms. Diosita Andot, 2012.
- 90.
Based on the speeches of MNLF leader Mr. Hatimil Hassan, Alvarez Isnaji, and Dr. Alipikre Basher (representing Chair Nur Misuari) during the Consolidation for Peace for Mindanao (COP5) held 16–20 January 2012 in Penang, Malaysia, in Abubakar, Ayesah, Unpublished Proceedings Reports from the Consolidation for Peace Program (Penang: REPUSM/SEACSN, 2007–2012).
- 91.
See Ilagan, Gail (ed.), Living in Peace (Mindanao: Act for Peace Programme, 2008); Tan-Ilaga, G., Sanz-Zarate, Dy, C., Mainstreaming Political Participation in Marginal Communities (Davao City: ACT for Peace Programme, 2004); and Maulana, N. (2009). Various interviews with MNLF leaders and ACT4Peace staff who are part of the ACT4Peace Programme in the Provinces of Sultan Kudarat, Saranggani, General Santos City and Cotabato City in May to July 2008.
- 92.
Curry (2010: 47–48). The aspect of ‘durability’ of the ACT for Peace Programme is mentioned in another UNDP report wherein it puts forward the possibilities of reversal of the situation on the ground or loss of achievements. See United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Philippines, Crisis Prevention and Recovery Component, 2006 CPAP Annual Review (Makati City: UNDP Philippines, 2006): 13.
- 93.
ACT for Peace Mid-Term Review, 30 May 2008, pp. 38–40.
- 94.
See Ahmed, R. Kulessa, M., and Malik, K. (eds.), “Report on the Philippines”, Lessons Learned in Crises and Post Conflict Situations: The Role of UNDP in Reintegration and Reconstruction Programme (New York: UNDP Evaluation Office, 2002): 96.
- 95.
A UN report cites how some findings identify economic and environmental issues as greater sources of threats to human security, reinforcing the earlier National Unification Commission Report of 1993 as another basis for the Philippine government’s peace policy vis-à-vis the internal armed conflicts. See Curry (2010: 44).
- 96.
Ibid., p. 46.
- 97.
Interviews with MNLF commanders in Saranggani in May to July 2008. Due to the factionalism problem among the MNLF leadership and followers, there were many who have not been included in any post-conflict activity, or have willingly chosen to be excluded.
- 98.
Interview with Ms. Jocelyn Lambac, manager of “Kalinaw Saranggani” (Peace) Office at the Provincial Government Office of Saranggani in June 2008.
- 99.
ACT for Peace Mid-Term Review, 30 May 2008.
- 100.
See news article at: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/156051/phgov% E2%80%99t-no-new-peace-talks-with-mnlf (15 March 2012). Also, see the perspective of the MNLF in a column article by Rasul. Amina, 8 March 2012, on the Relevance of the MNLF: at: http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Opinion&title=The-relevance-of-theMNLF&id=48028 (15 March 2012).
- 101.
Based on discussions regarding the MNLF peace process during the Consolidation for Peace for Mindanao (COP5), held 16–20 January 2012, Penang, Malaysia, in Abubakar (2007–2012).
- 102.
Parts of this paragraph are adapted with permission from the article by Askandar, Kamarulzaman and Abubakar (2007), in “The Struggle for Self-determination in Aceh”, Autonomy and Peace Review, April–June 2007 (Cotabato City: IAG).
- 103.
For more background stories of peacebuilding and mediation initiatives before the Aceh tsunami period, please read the article by Askandar, Kamarulzaman (2011), “Aceh refugees and conflict transformation, in Paix sains frontieres: building peace across borders”, Accord Issue 22 (London: Conciliation Resources). The number of at least 150,000 Acehnese who died and went missing from the tsunami is cited from “Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Agency of Aceh and Nias” (BRR), in Aceh and Nias: Two Years after the Tsunami, 2006 Progress Report, December 2006 (Banda Aceh: BRR and Partners, 2006).
- 104.
Various interviews with officials from BRA, BRR, the World Bank, and the Aceh Institute in Banda Aceh in April 2007. Yusny Saby of BRA, Muslahuddin Daud of the WB, Lukman of the Aceh Institute. REPUSM research trip. Also, see Lingga, Abhoud Syed M., “The Aceh Peace Process and Lessons for Mindanao”, Autonomy and Peace Monograph, 15 October 2007 (Cotabato City: Institute for Autonomy and Governance and Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, 2007).
- 105.
For more discussion on the role of the AMM and its efforts in the initial phase of post-conflict work in Aceh, see at: http://www.aceh-mm.org/english/info_menu/archive.htm (12 April 2012).
- 106.
“Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Agency of Aceh and Nias (BRR)”, in Aceh and Nias: Two Years after the Tsunami, 2006 Progress Report, December 2006 (Banda Aceh: BRR and Partners, 2006), p. 29.
- 107.
Ibid.
- 108.
Ibid.
- 109.
A mukim is a traditional leader who plays a role between the village and a sub-district in Aceh.
- 110.
BRA provides for all GAM returnees – this includes active and non-active GAM members, and political prisoners. But there are differences in the kind of reparations or incentives that each group gets. Mainly, the active and non-active GAM members receive more rehabilitation incentives.
- 111.
This part is adapted with permission from the article of Kamarulzaman Askandar and Ayesah Abubakar, “The Struggle for Self-determination in Aceh”, Autonomy and Peace Review, April–June 2007 (Cotabato City: IAG, 2007).
- 112.
Interview with Dr. Yusny Saby, former head of the BRA, during a research field trip in Banda Aceh, 16–22 April 2007.
- 113.
World Bank, Aceh Peace-Reintegration (BRA), National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS), et al., 2009, Multi-Stakeholder Review of Post-Conflict Programming in Aceh: Identifying the Foundations for Sustainable Peace and Development in Aceh (MSR 2009) (Aceh: World Bank): 52.
- 114.
The Demobilisation and Decommissioning of the GAM armed forces was implemented by the Aceh Monitoring Mission (AMM).
- 115.
In MSR, 2009, there are discussions regarding the DDR approach used in Aceh, in p. 169.
- 116.
Ibid., p. 60.
- 117.
Ibid., pp. 54–55.
- 118.
Ibid., p. 7.
- 119.
Ibid., p. 32.
- 120.
As cited in a World Bank Report by Barron, Patrick, Clark, Samuel, Daud, Muslahuddin, 2005, Conflict and Recovery in Aceh: An Assessment of Conflict Dynamics and Options for Supporting the Peace Process, 23 August 2005 (Banda Aceh: World Bank Office): 2.
- 121.
Various meetings with civil society groups, traditional leaders, GAM leaders, and Governor Irwandi in Banda Aceh during a research trip, 16–22 April 2007.
- 122.
The Consortium of Aceh Civil Society was launched on 8 October 2008 in preparation for the exit of the international community and the need for consolidating the peace gains in Aceh.
- 123.
Ibid., p. xix.
- 124.
In ACT for Peace Programme Mid Term Review (MTR), 30 May 2008, p. 38.
- 125.
MSR (2009: 161).
- 126.
MSR (2009: 170).
- 127.
Compared to the MNLF peace process, specifically the post-conflict development stage, the Aceh post-conflict developments attracted more scholars, practitioners and international organizations that systematically analysed the impacts of the conflict and the succeeding implementation of the peace agreement. Examples of these are the numerous WB reports and papers, joint research projects by various multilateral agencies and other donor agencies like the MSR, other independent research by scholars in peace, conflict and development fields, and even the many research studies done by postgraduate students from all over the world who flocked to Aceh soon after the post-tsunami and post-conflict developments.
- 128.
This centre-periphery inequality resolution as a guarantee to durable peace is discussed in the Summary Findings by Barron, Patrick and Clark, Samuel, “Decentralizing Inequality? Center-Periphery Relations, Local Governance, and Conflict in Aceh”, in Social Development Papers: Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction, Paper No. 39/December 2006 (Washington DC: World Bank, 2006).
- 129.
The ceasefire between the government and the MILF is deemed to be the first and formal engagement in their peace process.
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Abubakar, A.U. (2019). Literature Review of Theories, Concepts, and Case Studies in Sustainable Human Development and Peacebuilding. In: Peacebuilding and Sustainable Human Development. The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—Society—Science, vol 16. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53387-2_2
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