Abstract
Deep-sea minerals such as polymetallic nodule, hydrothermal sulphides, and ferro-manganese crusts have for long attracted attention as an alternative source of metals to terrestrial deposits. The occurrence of many of these deposits in the international waters has necessitated its regulation under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea through the establishment of International Seabed Authority.
A sudden spurt in the number of ‘Contractors’ interested in claiming large tracts of seafloor with exclusive rights for exploration from just eight in the first four decades (1970–2010) to 25 in the next 4 years (2011–2015) as well as consistent research and development of technology for prospecting, mining, and processing of these resources, coupled with issuing of licences to private entrepreneurs for deposits within the EEZ of some countries, calls for a re-look at the current status and future prospects of deep-sea mining.
References
Amann H (1982) Technological trends in ocean mining. Philos Trans R Soc:377–403
Amos AF, Roels OA, Garside C, Malone TC, Paul AZ (1977) Environmental aspects of nodule mining. In: Glasby GP (ed) Marine manganese deposits. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 391–438
Banakar VK, Hein JR, Rajani RP, Chodankar AR (2007) Platinum group elements and gold in ferromanganese crusts from Afanasiy-Nikitin seamount, equatorial Indian Ocean: sources and fractionation. J Earth Sys Sc 116:3–13
Chung JS (2003) Deep-ocean mining technology: learning curve I. In: Proceedings of ISOPE-ocean mining symposium, International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineers, Tsukuba, Japan, pp 1–16
Chung JS, Schriever G, Sharma R, Yamazaki T (2001) Deep seabed mining environment: engineering and environment assessment. In: Proceedings of ISOPE–ocean mining symposium, International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineers, Szcecin, Poland, pp 8–14
Cronan DS (1980) Underwater minerals. Academic Press, London, p 362
Cronan DS (ed) (2000) Marine mineral deposits handbook. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 406
Cronan DS, Moorby SA (1981) Manganese nodules and other ferromanganese oxide deposits from the Indian Ocean. J Geol Soc Lond 138:527–539
Dick R (1985) Deep-sea mning versus land mining: a cost comparison. In: Donges JB (ed) The economics of deep-sea mining. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp 2–60
Exon NF, Raven MD, De Carlo EH (2002) Ferromanganese nodules and crusts from the Christmas region, Indian Ocean. Mar Georesour Geotechnol 20:275–297
en.wikipedi.org/wiki/HMSChallenger. Information on HMS Challenger expedition 1873–1876.
Frazer JZ, Fisk MB (1981) Geological factors related to characteristics of seafloor manganese nodule deposits. Deep-Sea Res 28A:1533–1551
Frazer JZ, Wilson LL (1980) Nodule resources in the Indian Ocean. Mar Min 2:257–256
Foell EJ, Thiel H, Schriever G (1990) DISCOL: a long-term, large-scale, disturbance-recolonization experiment in the abyssal eastern tropical South Pacific Ocean. In: Proceedings of offshore technology conference, International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineers, Houston, pp 497–503
Ford G, Niblett C, Walker L (1987) The future for ocean technology. Frances, London, 139 pp
Fukushima T (1995) Overview Japan Deep-Sea impact experiment=JET. In: Proceedings of ISOPE ocean mining symposium. International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineers, Tsukuba, Japan, pp 47–53
Glasby GP (1972) Geochemistry of manganese nodules from the Northwest Indian Ocean. In: Horn DR (ed) Ferromanganese deposits on the ocean floor. National Science Foundation, Washington, pp 93–104
Glasby GP (ed) (1977) Marine manganese deposits. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p 523
Glasby GP (1982) Manganese nodules from the South Pacific: an evaluation. Mar Min 3:231–270
Glasby GP, Stoffers P, Sioulas A, Thijssen T, Friedrich G (1982) Manganese nodules formation in the Pacific Ocean: a general theory. Geo-Mar Lett 2:47–53
Glasby GP (1983) The three-million-tons-per-year manganese nodule “Mine Site”: an optimistic assumption? Mar Min 4:73–77
Gleason WM (2008) Companies turning to seafloor in advance of next great metals rush. Min Engg April 2008:14–16
Glumov IF, Kuzneicov KM, Prokazova MS (2000) Ocenka znaczzenija mineralych resursov meidunarod nogo rajona morskogo dna w mineralno syriewom potenciale Rossijskoj Federacii (in Russian). In: Proceedings of geological congress, St. Petersburg, pp 27–29
Halbach P, Sattler CD, Teichmann F, Wahsner M (1989) Cobalt rich and platinum bearing manganese crust deposits on seamounts: nature, formation and metal potential. Mar Min 8:23
Halkyard J (2008) Paper presented in Workshop on polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead, Chennai, India (Sept. 2008). International Seabed Authority, Jamaica
Hein JR, Yeh H-W, Alexander E (1979) Origin of iron-rich montmorillonite from the manganese nodule belt of the north equatorial Pacific. Clay Clay Miner 27:185–194
Hein JR, Kochinsky A, Halbach P, Manheim FT, Bau M, Kang J-K, Lubick N (1997) Iron and manganese oxide mineralisation in the Pacific. In: Nicholon K, Hein JR, Buhn B, Dasgupta S (eds) Manganese mineralisation: geochemistry and mineralogy of terrestrial and marine deposits. Geological Society Special Publication No. 119, London, p 123
Hill T (2008) Paper presented in workshop on polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead, Chennai, India, Sept 2008. International Seabed Authority, Jamaica
Herrouin G, Lenoble JP, Charles C, Mauviel F, Bernard J, Taine B (1991) French study indicates profit potential for industrial manganese nodule venture. Trans Soc Min Metall Explor 288:1893–1899
International Marine Minerals Society (2011) Code for environmental management of marine mining. www.immsoc.org/IMMS_code.htm
International Seabed Authority (2016) Areas allotted to Contractors and Reserved areas in the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean. www.isa.org.jm
ISA (1998) Plans of work of exploration of Govt. of India, Inst. Francais de Researche pour L’exploration de la mer, Deep Ocean Resources Development Co. Japan, Yuzhmorgeologiya Russia, China Ocean Mineral Resources R & D Association, Interoceanmetal Joint Organisation, and Govt. of Republic of Korea. Report of the Secretary General, International Seabed Authority, Jamaica. ISBA/4/A/1/Rev.2
ISA (2000) Decision of the assembly relating to the regulations on prospecting and exploration for polymetallic nodules in the Area. ISBA/6/A/18, International Seabed Authority, Jamaica, p 48
ISA (2001) Recommendations for guidance of contractors for the assessment of the possible environmental impacts arising from exploration for polymetallic nodules in the Area. International Seabed Authority, Jamaica. ISBA/7/LTC/1 2001; pp 11.
ISA (2005) Recommendations of the workshop on polymetallic sulphides and cobalt crusts: their environment and considerations for the establishment of environmental baselines and an associated monitoring programme for exploration. ISBA/11/LTC/2 2005, International Seabed Authority, Jamaica, p 26
ISA (2008a) Report on the International Seabed Authority’s workshop on Polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead. ISBA/14/LTC/3, International Seabed Authority, Jamaica, p 4
ISA (2008b) Executive summary of the International Seabed Authority’s workshop on Polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead. International Seabed Authority: Chennai, India, p 20
ISA (2009) A geological model for polymetallic nodules in Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone. Technical Report No. 6, International Seabed Authority, Jamaica, p 211
Jasiobedzki P, Corcoran R, Jenkin M, Jakola R (2007) From space robotics to deep seabed mining. In: Proceedings of 37th Underwater Mining Institute. International Marine Minerals Society, Tokyo, Japan, pp J1–11
Jauhari PJ, Pattan JN (2000) Ferromanganese nodules from the Central Indian Ocean Basin. In: Cronan DS (ed) Handbook of marine mineral deposits. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 171–195
Kotlinski R (2001) Mineral resources of the world’s ocean—their importance for global economy in the 21st century. In: Proceedings of 4th ISOPE ocean mining symposium, International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineers, Szczecin, Poland, pp 1–7
Kunzendorf H (1986) Marine mineral exploration. Elsevier Science Publications, Amsterdam, 300 p
Lenoble JP (2000) A comparison of possible economic returns from mining deep-sea polymetallic nodules, polymetallic massive sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. In: Proceedings of workshop on mineral resources. International Seabed Authority, Jamaica, pp 1–22
Markussen JM (1994) Deep seabed mining and the environment: consequences, perception and regulations. In: Bergesen H, Parmann G (eds) Green Globe Yearbook of international cooperation on environment and development. Oxford University Press, London, pp 31–39
Martin-Barajas A, Lallier-Verges E, Lecraire L (1991) Characteristics of manganese nodules from the Central Indian Basin: relationship with sedimentary environment. Mar Geol 101:249–265
Metals prices for Cu, Ni, Co, Mn for 5 years (July 2011). www.metalprices.com
Mero JL (1965) The mineral resources of the sea. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 312 pp
Mero JL (1977) Economic aspects of nodule mining. In: Glasby GP (ed) Marine manganese deposits. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp 327–355
Morgan C (2000) Resource estimation of the Clarion-clipperton manganese nodule deposits. In: Cronan DS (ed) Handbook of marine mineral deposits. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 145–170
Morgan CL, Odunton N, Jones AT (1999) Synthesis of environmental impacts of deep seabed mining. Mar Georesour Geotechnol 17:307–357
Ozturgut E, Lavelle JW, Steffin O, Swift SA (1980) Environmental investigation during manganese nodule mining tests in the north equatorial pacific, in November 1978. NOAA Tech. Memorandum ERL MESA-48, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, p 50
Pearson JS (1975) Ocean floor mining. Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ, 201 pp
Rao VP, Nath BN (1988) Nature, distribution and origin of clay minerals in grain size fractions of sediments from manganese nodule field, Central Indian Ocean Basin. Ind J Mar Sci 17:202–207
Plueger WL, Herzig PM, Becker K-P, Deissmann G, Schops D, Lange J, Jenisch A, Ladage S, Richnow HH, Schultz T, Michaelis W (1990) Dicovery of the hydrothermal fields at the Central Indian Ridge. Mar Min 9:73
Rona PA (1988) Hydrothermal mineralisation at oceanic ridges. Can Mineral 26:431
Rona PA (2003) Resources of the ocean floor. Science 299:673–674
Sharma R (2011) Deep-sea mining: economic, technical, technological and environmental considerations for sustainable mining. Mar Technol Soc J 45:28–41
Sharma R, Nath BN (eds) (2000) Indian BIE: Indian Deep-sea Environment Experiment (INDEX). Mar Georesour Geotechnol 18:177–294
Sharma R (ed) (2001) Indian deep-sea environment experiment (INDEX): a study for environmental impact of deep seabed mining in Central Indian Ocean. Deep-Sea Res II 48:3295–3426
Sharma R (ed) (2005) Indian deep-sea environment experiment (INDEX): monitoring the restoration of marine environment after artificial disturbance to simulate deep-sea mining in Central Indian Basin. Mar Georesour Geotechnol 23:253–427
Siddiquie HN, Das Gupta DR, Sen Gupta NR, Shrivastava PC, Mallik TK (1978) Manganese-Iron nodules from the Indian Ocean. Ind J Mar Sci 7:239–253
Theil H (ed) (2001) Environmental impact study for mining of polymetallic nodules from the deep sea. Deep-Sea Res II 48:3427–3882
Thijssen T, Glasby GP, Schmitz WA, Friedrich G, Kunzendorf H, Muller D, Richter H (1981) Reconnaissance survey of Manganese Nodules from the Northern Sector of the Peru Basin. Mar Min 2:385–428
Tkatchenko GG, Radziejewska T, Stoyanova V, Modlitba I, Parizek A (1996) Benthic Impact experiment in the IOM pioneer area: testing for effects of deep seabed disturbance. In: Proceedings of International Semimar on deep seabed mining technology. China Ocean Minerals R&D Association, Beijing, China, pp C55–C68
Trueblood DD (1993) US cruise report for BIE II cruise. Techical Memorandum No. OCRS 4, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, p 51.
UN (1990) Draft regulations on prospecting, exploration and exploitation of polymetallic nodules in the Area. Part VIII. Protection and preservation of the marine environment from activities in the Area. Working paper by Secretariat, UNODC. LOC/PCN/SCN3/WP6/add.5
UNOET (1982) Assessment of manganese nodule resources. UN Ocean Economics and Technology Branch and Graham & Trotman Limited London, 79pp
UNOET (1987) Delineation of mine sites and potential in different sea areas. UN Ocean Economics and Technology Branch and Graham & Trotman Limited, London, 79pp
Usui A, Matsumoto K, Sekimoto M, Okamoto N (2003). Geological study of cobalt-rich ferro-manganese crusts using a camera-monitored drill machine in the Marshall Islands Area. In: Proceedings of ISOPE-Ocean Mining symposium, International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineers, Tsukuba, pp 12–15
Usui A, Moritani T (1992) Manganese nodule deposits in the Central Pacific Basin: distribution, geochemistry and genesis. In: Keating BH, Bolton BR (eds) Geology and offshore mineral resources of the Central Pacific Basin, Earth Science series, vol 14. Springer, New York, pp 205–223
Wiltshire JC (2000) Innovation in marine ferromanganese oxide tailings disposal. In: Cronan DS (ed) Handbook of marine mineral deposits. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 281–308
Yamada H, Yamazaki T (1998) Japan’s ocean test of the nodule mining system. In: Proceedings of international offshore and polar engineering conference. International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineers, Montreal, Canada, pp 13–19
Yamazaki T, Sharma R (2001) Estimation of sediment properties during benthic impact experiments. Mar Georesour Geotechnol 19:269–289
Acknowledgments
Author gratefully acknowledges the permission given by Secretary General, International Seabed Authority, Jamaica, for reproducing the maps from website.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sharma, R. (2017). Deep-Sea Mining: Current Status and Future Considerations. In: Sharma, R. (eds) Deep-Sea Mining. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52557-0_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52557-0_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-52556-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-52557-0
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)