Abstract
Deploying an artificially intelligent (AI) detective, this chapter examines over 500 crime scene photographs with computer vision in order to experimentally see the anthropogenic fog of darkness that has characterized representations of crime since the first stage of the Anthropocene. These photographs of murder were taken by police and news photographers from the late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century in three cities that have been centrally responsible for not only the onset of industrialization and anthropogenic climate change, but also innovations in crime scene photography: Paris, London and New York City. Computer vision and cultural analytics are introduced as methods for countering our inability to see the Anthropocene in visualizations of crime scenes. As a contribution to visual criminology’s methodological toolkit, an AI-mediated approach is built on semiotics, which, in turn, has shaped the practice of detection from classical detection fiction to real-life criminalistics. Through the AI detective’s data visualizations, this chapter documents the fog as a visual sign of darkness, ultimately connecting it to an overarching noir aesthetic that continues to inform our imagination of crime.
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09 March 2021
This book was inadvertently published with incorrect authorship for each chapter. This has now been updated in all the chapters. The co-authored chapters now mirror the cover authorship, where ‘with’ is used rather than ‘and’ (as in Anita Lam with Matthew Tegelberg).
Notes
- 1.
The first use of ‘pea soup’ to refer to London fog comes from Herman Melville’s Journal of a Visit to London and the Continent (1849), according to the Oxford English Dictionary.
- 2.
Murder scenes have been central to cinematic scenes of violence, which make up our cultural and visual repertoire of crime-images (see Young 2010).
- 3.
Drawing from the most successful account of the Ripper murders before the First World War, Alfred Hitchcock turned Marie Belloc Lowndes’ fictional tale, The Lodger (1911), into a silent film that doubles as ‘a story about the London fog’ (the 1927 film’s subtitle). Deemed by Hitchcock to be his first true film, The Lodger is an expression of modernist cinema’s call upon the audience to acknowledge what is in view within the film frame (Rothman 2012). In this modernist cinema, the fog plays a role in the visual formation of mystery, danger and uncertainty, obscuring the camera’s view and consequently, concealing any conclusive evidence that could prove our worst suspicions.
- 4.
This desire for a foggy setting persists despite the fact that both the fictional Holmes and the real-life Ripper are likely to have solved or committed crimes under clear skies (Corton 2015b).
- 5.
The likening of Eugène Atget’s photographs to crime scenes is facilitated by Atget’s naming practices. He names his street photographs according to the time and location of image-making, in the much the same way that crime scene photographs are themselves named. As a result, images, such as Rue Pigalle. à 6 h. du matin en avril 1925, can be situated in the same imaginative continuum as the ‘street-name mysteries’ from early feuilletons in Paris, like René de Pont-Jest’s Le Numero 13 de la rue Marlot (1877), and in the generic tradition begun by Edgar Allan Poe’s The Murders in the Rue Morgue (Goulet 2016).
- 6.
In addition to loneliness, the nineteenth-century train compartment evoked fear. Schivelbusch (1977/2014: 79) describes the ways in which the train compartment ‘became a crime scene – a crime that could take place unheard and unseen by the travelers in adjoining compartments.’ Due to the isolation imposed upon travellers in compartments, and the fast-moving roar of rapidly revolving wheels, European passengers feared that their journeys could be derailed by murder or violence aboard the train, particularly after the 1860 Poinsot murder in France and the 1864 Briggs murder in England.
- 7.
Notably, it was the invention and refinement of the steam engine that helped propel a turn to fossil fuels (Crutzen and Stoermer 2000), setting the stage for the Anthropocene and amplifying humans’ ability to shape the rest of the biosphere.
- 8.
A clue-based epistemology emerged and became successful in the latter half of the nineteenth century, as individuality and identity became central to the police’s work of distinguishing the criminal classes from the respectable ones (Ginzburg 1979).
- 9.
- 10.
In computer vision , scenes are associated with specific human functions and behaviours, constituent materials, embedded objects and the shape and size of particular environments. For example, a street scene is associated with walking and, consequently, will be detected when it features a narrow corridor for walking (shape and size of its particular environment); human pedestrians and the things, such as traffic signs and street lights, around which they navigate (embedded objects); and constituent materials, such as sky, trees and sidewalks. For an example of how a street scene is composed, according to the SUN database hosted at MIT, please visit: https://groups.csail.mit.edu/vision/SUN/scenes/pages/s/street/index.html
- 11.
To explore the COCO dataset, please visit http://cocodataset.org/#explore
- 12.
Canonical perspectives are preferred views that are selected as ‘best’ by observers when they are shown multiple views of the same object. Further, they are (re)produced when people are tasked with forming a mental object or with photographing an object. Typically, the canonical view of an object tends to maximize the visible amount of surface area of the object in order to convey the most information about an object’s identity (Verfaillie and Boutsen 1995).
- 13.
Because the object types in the COCO dataset are contemporary ones, including objects such as iPads, flip flops, microwaves and jetpacks, among others, these present-day objects are sometimes (incorrectly) detected in some of the photographs taken between 1880 and 1945, a time period when these objects did not exist.
- 14.
Object detection and image recognition systems have been engineered in relation to seeing people’s faces and detecting live pedestrians. AI detection has been fine-tuned in cases involving face detection, as well as the detection of pedestrians (e.g., Caltech Pedestrian dataset). The former has been incorporated into identification technologies that have proliferated at border crossings and on social media platforms (e.g., Facebook), while the latter has been developed to improve the computer vision deployed by self-driving cars.
- 15.
The Mask R-CNN framework has been tested and modelled on the COCO dataset (see He et al. 2008).
- 16.
See Saleh et al. (2014), for example, on how computational methods have automated the discovery of artistic influence in fine art.
- 17.
The image plots are produced using ImagePlot, an open source software tool that was produced and released by the Software Studies Initiative. For download, please visit http://lab.softwarestudies.com/p/imageplot.html#features1
- 18.
Because of the selected time period, all the images in the sample are historical photographs that are older than the number of years (e.g., 30 years) required for sensitive documents to be made available to the public. This allows us to respect the privacy of victims’ families and their descendants.
- 19.
The Album of Paris Crime Scenes has also been presented alongside fictionalized accounts of those involved in the crime scenes captured by Bertillon , ranging from Bertillon himself to a murderess, in Eugenia Parry’s (2000) Crime Album Stories: Paris, 1886–1902.
- 20.
Getty Images houses the New York Daily News collection, dating back to 1919.
- 21.
The International Center of Photography holds a collection of photographs taken by Arthur ‘Weegee’ Fellig.
- 22.
The London sample of crime scene photographs was supplemented by photographs from the Getty Images digital archive.
- 23.
Although photographs of Mary Kelly were discovered by Donald Rumbelow and first reprinted in 1960, the original photographer remains anonymous. These images are also different from the mortuary photographs of Jack the Ripper’s other victims, as they are the only set to locate the victim’s body at the crime scene (Anwer 2014).
- 24.
In verifying the accuracy of the AI’s work, we reviewed its ability to generate reliable object masks over the victim’s body (i.e., its ability to produce a mask that precisely covers and tightly fits the contours of the victim’s body). Unreliable masks are those that do not fully cover the victim’s entire body (e.g., it only covers a hand), or covers more than the body (e.g., it includes the surrounding environment beyond the body). In practice, the AI was only able to generate reliable masks for a total of 184 images out of the 385 images in the sample that contained a victim’s body. The resulting analysis of body size was run only on those 184 images.
- 25.
It is possible that this finding is a product of our sample selection. Because our sample relies on publicly accessible images, whether published in newspapers or made digitally available by archives, it is beholden to the ways in which these organizations select images for publication or preservation. Consequently, archives and newspapers seem to have a bias towards selecting crime scene photographs that are only taken at particular ranges from the crime scene, such as 10-feet away from the scene (Bonanos 2018). Rather than choosing close-up images, where the details may become too gory for public viewers, they have tended to preserve or print photographs that capture the entire crime scene, providing viewers with an overall shot that is analogous to the establishing shot in film. In these photographs, bodies have been typically shot at a distance rather than up close, positioned in a particular setting that additionally informs the way the scene is read. In these overall shots of the crime scene, a wide-angle lens is normally used to allow viewers to see a large area of the scene from either a natural perspective—that is, at the photographer’s eye level when she or he is standing at their full height (Dutelle 2012)—or from an aerial perspective, as advocated by Bertillon .
- 26.
As a site for murder, the bedroom was most frequently depicted in crime scene photographs between 1880 and 1919: bedroom scenes made up 68.75% of the images from 1880 to 1899, 32.1% of the images from 1900 to 1909 and 24.8% of the images from 1910 to 1919. Bedroom scenes became increasingly infrequent in our sample after 1920, making up 18% of the images from the 1920s, 2% of the images from the 1930s and 0% of the images from the 1940s.
- 27.
The bourgeois interior, which includes the bedroom, has been linked to the development of the detective novel as a genre. Walter Benjamin (1989: 41–2) explains how the interior is a site for clue-based detective work: ‘[t]he interior is not only the universe of the individual, but also what wraps around him. To live somewhere means to leave traces…Traces of the person who lives there are imprinted on the interior. This is the origin of the detective novel, which pursues such traces. His Philosophy of Furniture, as well as his detective novels, proves that Poe was the first physiognomist of the interior.’
- 28.
The digitized police collections from the three cities under study, particularly for Paris and New York City, offer fewer crime scene photographs after the First World War. These images are likely to exist in hard copy at the archives, but have yet to either be digitized and/or presented in their online collections.
- 29.
Since each pixel has its own greyscale value, the greyscale value for each image was measured as an average, whereby the sum of all greyscale values for each pixel in the image was divided by the total number of pixels in the image.
- 30.
The creation of these composite histograms follows the logic that propelled Sir Francis Galton to produce his composite portraits of known criminals in the 1880s. As a method for documenting and visualizing types, the composite image provides a visual generalization or visual aggregate. While Galton produced his composite portraits through a process of timed exposure, wherein each photograph would be exposed for a fraction of the total time until multiple criminal faces would blur into a single face, our composite histograms are produced with contemporary photo-editing software, where layers are produced in post-production editing. Nevertheless, the resulting image represents the average, and the blurred edges or lighter areas represent the visual standard deviation from the average. Notably, this drive to produce what Galton termed ‘pictorial statistics’ (Sekula 1986: 47) has been crucial to the development of both criminology and criminalistics . However, the ethical complexities of creating such composite images are mitigated in our example, for we do not infer that humans can be reducible to biological or physiognomic types. Rather, we use our composite histogram to demonstrate representational types, aligning with the project of ordering images and texts into generic types in the (digital) humanities.
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Lam, A. (2020). Establishing Shots: Detecting Anthropogenic Fog in Modern Crime Scene Photography. In: Criminal Anthroposcenes. Palgrave Studies in Crime, Media and Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46004-4_3
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