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The Politics of Markets

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Government and Merchant Finance in Anglo-Gascon Trade, 1300–1500

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in the History of Finance ((PSHF))

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Abstract

As English kings looked to draw revenues from Anglo-Gascon trade, they endeavoured to control its markets, and, as they did, their intervention significantly reshaped its institutional framework. This chapter explains how, over time, commercial exchange was increasingly concentrated in Bordeaux and Bayonne, with overseas trade dominated by a London guild, the Mistery of the Vintry. Both monopolies required damaging market restrictions be enforced by statute from 1353 to 1445. Any efforts to balance the interests of Anglo-Gascon and English merchants, however, ultimately failed, and antagonism between the various vested interests formed the backdrop to the loss of Aquitaine to the French crown in 1451–3.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The historiography of late medieval English politics is vast; for an overview, see M. H. Keen, England in the later Middle Ages: A political history (1973, repr. London, 2003); W. M. Ormrod, Political Life in Medieval England, 1300–1450 (Basingstoke, 1995). For a good analysis of English political culture, see A. Ruddick, English Identity and Political Culture in the Fourteenth Century (Cambridge, 2013); M. Hicks, English Political Culture in the Fifteenth Century (London, 2002).

  2. 2.

    See Pépin, ‘The relationship between the kings of England and their role as dukes of Aquitaine’.

  3. 3.

    For more on Gascon petitions, see Pépin, ‘Petitions from Gascony’, 120–34.

  4. 4.

    TNA, E 30/1105.

  5. 5.

    For the only extant work on the Three Estates of Aquitaine, see Pépin, ‘The Parlament of Anglo-Gascon Aquitaine: the Three Estates of Aquitaine (Guyenne)’, 131–64.

  6. 6.

    For example, ‘Richard II: May 1382’, items 6, 8, PROME, BHO.

  7. 7.

    Pépin, ‘Petitions from Gascony’, 120–34, at 131.

  8. 8.

    R. L. Baker, ‘The English Customs Service, 1307–1343: A Study of Medieval Administration’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 51:6 (1961), 3–76.

  9. 9.

    For more on the role of the constables, see Lodge, ‘The Constables of Bordeaux in the Reign of Edward III’, 225–41; for more information on fifteenth-century ducal appointments, see F. Bériac, ‘Les officiers et l’administration dans le duché d’Aquitaine (c. 1430–1451)’, Cadres de vie et sociétés dans le Midi médiéval. Mélanges en l’honneur de Charles Higounet (Toulouse, 1990), 337–48.

  10. 10.

    T. F. Tout, Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England: The Wardrobe, the Chamber, and the Small Seals, vol. 6 (Manchester, 33), 68–71; it should be noted that Frescobaldi’s representative, Ugolino Ugolini, largely performed this role on behalf; see TNA, C 61/33 m. 9; for Usodimare’s appointment; see Lodge, ‘The Constables of Bordeaux’, 225–41, at 230–1; similarly a deputy, his brother Antonio, acted for him.

  11. 11.

    E. P. Stuart, H. Johnstone, ‘Richard of Elsfield as Constable of Bordeaux, 1318–20’, The English Historical Review, 52:205 (1937), 23–38.

  12. 12.

    TNA, SC 8/125/6244.

  13. 13.

    GSR, C 61/42: 40; C 61/86: 65.

  14. 14.

    See R. Blackmore, ‘The Political Economy of the Anglo-Gascon Wine Trade’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Southampton (2018), vol. 1, 39–47.

  15. 15.

    Livre des bouillons, 180–1; Livre des coutumes, 318–9, 617–8.

  16. 16.

    Renouard, ‘Le grand commerce’, 261–304, at 282. Renouard cites some efforts at long-term storage, but this was rare and as today would apply to a small minority of wines; see idem, ‘Le Vin Vieux au Moyen Âge’, Annales du Midi, 76:68–69 (1964), 447–55.

  17. 17.

    Quotation on the issac from GSR, C 61/85: 24.

  18. 18.

    Livre des bouillons, 156; Marsh, English Rule, 94.

  19. 19.

    GSR, C 61/85: 24.

  20. 20.

    James, Studies, 70–1.

  21. 21.

    ‘De Libertatibus Concessis Mercatoribus vinetariis de Ducatu Aquitaniæ’, in H. Hall (ed.), The Red Book of the Exchequer (Cambridge, 2012), 1060–4; H. T. Riley (ed.), Munimenta Gildhallae Londoniensis: Liber Custumarum, Rolls Series, 12:2 (1860), 205–11; GSR, C 61/108: 26.

  22. 22.

    See H. Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition (Cambridge, 1983), 333–56.

  23. 23.

    E. Kadens, ‘The Medieval Law Merchant: The Tyranny of a Construct’, Journal of Legal Analysis, 7:2 (2015), 251–89, at 278.

  24. 24.

    D. C. Douglas, H. Rothwell (eds.), English Historical Documents: Volume 3: 1189–1327 (London, 1953, repr. 1975), 1005–10. Admirals of the wine fleet could be appointed with full powers to dispense justice under ‘maritime law’; for example, see TNA, C 61/68, m. 2.

  25. 25.

    For details of the prise, see J. J. McCusker, Jr., ‘The Wine Prise and Mediaeval Mercantile Shipping’, Speculum, 41:2 (1966), 279–96, at 279; H. Atton, H. H. Holland (eds.), The King’s Customs: an Account of Maritime Revenue and Contraband Traffic in England, Scotland, and Ireland, from the Earliest Times to the Year 1800, 1 (New York, 1908, repr. London 1967), 8–12, 14.

  26. 26.

    James, Studies, 81.

  27. 27.

    Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311; James, Studies, 70–84, 160–95; T. H. Lloyd, Alien Merchants in England in the High Middle Ages (Brighton, 1982), 84–96; see also A. Beardwood, Alien Merchants in England 1350–1377: Their Legal and Economic Position (Cambridge, 1931).

  28. 28.

    Bordeaux sous les rois d’Angleterre, 547–8, 552–9; see also Vale, English Gascony, 19.

  29. 29.

    See T. H. Lloyd, The English Wool Trade in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1977).

  30. 30.

    TNA, E 101/173/4, fols 1r–38r.

  31. 31.

    TNA, E 101/185/11, fols 1r–61r.

  32. 32.

    Only 528¼ of the 14,231 tuns of wine imported between September 1438 and September 1440 were stated as in the possession of Gascons in the records of the new custom, TNA, E 101/81/16 (compare with totals from James, Studies, 58). This was a 16.5% share of all foreigners’ imports.

  33. 33.

    James, Studies, 80–4, quotation at 83.

  34. 34.

    Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 270–6.

  35. 35.

    James, Studies, 83.

  36. 36.

    J. B. Bailac, Nouvelle chronique de la ville de bayonne, par un Bayonnais, i (Bayonne, 1827), 58; Labarge, Gascony, 10; S. Rose, ‘Bayonne and the King’s Ships, 1204–1420’, The Marine’s Mirror: The International Quarterly Journal of The Society for Nautical Research, 86:2 (2000), 140–7.

  37. 37.

    For example, see G. Draper, P. Draper, F. Meddens, P. Armitage, G. Egan, The Sea and the Marsh: The Medieval Cinque Port of New Romney Revealed Through Archaeological Excavations and Historical Research, Pre-Construct Archaeology Monographs, 10 (London, 2009); S. Rose, ‘The Value of the Cinque Ports to the Crown 1200–1500’, in R. Gorski (ed.), Roles of the Sea in Medieval England (Woodbridge, 2012), 41–58, at 55.

  38. 38.

    Exports suddenly declined from 74,053 tuns in 1335–6 to just 16,577 tuns in 1336–7.

  39. 39.

    Rose, ‘Bayonne and the King’s Ships’, 140–7, at 144.

  40. 40.

    K. B. McFarlane, ‘War, the Economy and Social Change: England and the Hundred Years War’, Past & Present, 22 (1962), 3–18, at 9–10.

  41. 41.

    James, Studies, 125; for James’ sub-chapter on wine fleets; see ibid., 124–33.

  42. 42.

    ‘Folio xi: Aug 1353’, in Cal. Letter-Book: G, 13–25, BHO; for the identification of Chalcheford, see W. Cunningham, The Growth of English Industry and Commerce: During the Early and Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1890), 304.

  43. 43.

    CCR, 1381–1385, 480–1; CCR, 1385–1389, 12–3.

  44. 44.

    On 20 January 1357, one Robert de Ledrede was named admiral of the fleet, TNA, C 61/68, m. 2.

  45. 45.

    E. M. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers (London 1954, repr. 1967), 35.

  46. 46.

    N. H. Nicolas (ed.), A Journal by One of the Suite of Thomas Beckington (London, 1828), 84.

  47. 47.

    These seasonal changes are calculated from 2933 consignments of wine shipped by ecclesiastical and burgess exporters, split between 1348–86, and 1402–49. For the figures regarding the cathedral chapter of Saint-André in Bordeaux, that institution’s exports have obviously been treated separately. Sources are TNA, E 101/167/16; E 101/170/17; E 101/173/4; E 101/602/3; E 101/180/2; E 101/182/6; E 101/182/6; E 101/183/11; E 101/184/19; E 101/185/9; E 101/188/14; E 101/190/6; E 101/191/3; E 101/192/1; E 101/194/3; E 101/195/19. Author’s numbers, see R. Blackmore, ‘The Political Economy of the Anglo-Gascon Wine Trade’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Southampton (2018), vol. 2, 15–32, 38, 58–75, 76.

  48. 48.

    J. Hatcher, ‘England in the Aftermath of the Black Death’, Past & Present, 144 (1994), 3–35 at 10–11; S. L. Waugh, England in the Reign of Edward III (Cambridge, 1991), 109–13.

  49. 49.

    ‘Edward III: February 1351’, items 46–7, PROME, BHO.

  50. 50.

    James, Studies, 21.

  51. 51.

    ‘Edward III: February 1351’, item 43, PROME, BHO.

  52. 52.

    Wood, Medieval Economic Thought, 138–43.

  53. 53.

    James, Studies, 21.

  54. 54.

    Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 331, (27 Edw. III, st.1, c.5–7); TNA, C 61/66, m. 16; this is briefly discussed by Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311, at 299–301; Margery James barely considered this legislation at all; see James, Studies, 21.

  55. 55.

    ‘Edward III: September 1353’, PROME, BHO.

  56. 56.

    Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311, at 299–301.

  57. 57.

    Wood, Medieval Economic Thought, 138–43.

  58. 58.

    ‘Edward III: September 1353’, item 15, PROME, BHO.

  59. 59.

    James, Studies, 7, 164–5.

  60. 60.

    ‘Edward III: April 1354’, item 48, PROME, BHO.

  61. 61.

    In 1306–7, just 1155 tuns of 93,452 tuns exported from Gascony as a whole came from Bayonne; see James, Studies, 2–3, 32.

  62. 62.

    N. Davis (ed.), Paston Letters and Papers of the Fifteenth Century, 1 (Oxford, 1971), 106.

  63. 63.

    Bordeaux sous les rois d’Angleterre, 224, with later population estimates at 433–43, 452.

  64. 64.

    C. Higounet, ‘Géographie des péages de la Garonne et de ses affluents au Moyen Âge’, in C. Higounet (ed.), Villes, Sociétés et Economies médiévales (Bordeaux, 1992), 421–44, at 443–4.

  65. 65.

    J. Favier, Gold and Spices: The Rise of Commerce in the Middle Ages, (trns.) C. Higgitt (London, 1998), 14.

  66. 66.

    For details of the tolls at Rions and Vayres, see AHG, xxiii, 438–42.

  67. 67.

    J. B. Marquette, (ed.), Le Trésor des Chartes d’Albret, i, Les archives de Vayres (Paris, 1973), 784–5 (nos 631–2).

  68. 68.

    AHG, vi, 371–2.

  69. 69.

    GSR, C 61/130: 21–2; C 61/131: 85.

  70. 70.

    Calculated by the author from James, Studies, 32–3, 55–6.

  71. 71.

    TNA, C 61/67, m. 12.

  72. 72.

    TNA, E 101/173/4, fols 65v–91r, 93v, 94v–128v; totals on fols 128v–129r.

  73. 73.

    TNA, E 101/185/11, fols 36v, 45r.

  74. 74.

    TNA, E 101/192/1, fol. 60v.

  75. 75.

    TNA, E 101/602/3, fol. 48r; E 101/180/2, fol. 43r.

  76. 76.

    GSR, C 61/117: 41–42.

  77. 77.

    TNA, SC 8/290/14462; GSR, C 61/90: 17; AHG, xvi, 60–1.

  78. 78.

    TNA, E 101/180/9, fol. 26v.

  79. 79.

    PPC, vol. 3, 46–8 (this is incorrectly dated 1423).

  80. 80.

    As calculated by the author from James, Studies, 32–3.

  81. 81.

    TNA, E 101/173/4, fol. 129r.

  82. 82.

    Based on export figures of James, Studies, 32–3, 55–6, and the prevailing price of wine in Table A.1.

  83. 83.

    For examples of the work of wine brokers in the Bordelais, see AHG, xxii, 356, 379, 400, 417.

  84. 84.

    GSR, C 61/59: 76.

  85. 85.

    Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 299.

  86. 86.

    S. Lavaud, ‘Une communauté enracinée: les Anglais a Bordeaux a la fin du moyen age’, Revue historique de Bordeaux et du département de la Gironde, 1 (2002), 35–48.

  87. 87.

    Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311, at 300.

  88. 88.

    Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 384 (38, Edw. III, st.1, c.10).

  89. 89.

    R. Holt, G. Rosser, The Medieval Town in England 1200–1540 (Abingdon, 1990), 149.

  90. 90.

    R. Barber, Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine: A biography of the Black Prince (London, 1978), 171; Labarge, Gascony, 149.

  91. 91.

    CPR, 1364–1367, 6–7; CCR, 1364–1368, 74; for a full history of the Vintners’ company, see A. Crawford, A History of the Vintners’ Company (London, 1977); for Margery James’ perspective, see James, ‘The medieval wine dealer’, 45–53, at 46–7; idem, Studies, 161–2.

  92. 92.

    CCR, 1364–1368, 76. The London vintners could sell their wares to ‘tied taverns’ ensuring regular and reliable retail sales, S. L. Thrupp, The Merchant Class of Medieval London (Michigan, 1948, repr. 1962), 7.

  93. 93.

    CCR, 1364–1368, 76; ‘Folio cxxxix b: Dec 1364’, in Cal. Letter-Book: G, 169–78, BHO.

  94. 94.

    ‘Edward III: October 1363’, item 23, PROME, BHO; CCR, 1364–1368, 75–76; Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 379 (37 Edw. III, c.5), 380–382 (37 Edw. III, c.8–14); see also Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, 283–4.

  95. 95.

    It was stated in the regulation that ‘because of the great multitude of people of divers trades who come thither, [Gascons] put the wines at a higher price’, CPR, 1364–1367, 6.

  96. 96.

    ‘Edward III: January 1365’, item 28, PROME, BHO; Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 384, (38 Edw. III, st.1, c.11).

  97. 97.

    Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311, at 307–8.

  98. 98.

    CPR, 1364–1367, 6; Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311, at 306.

  99. 99.

    ‘Edward III: May 1368’, item 17, PROME, BHO; Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 389, (42 Edw. III, c.8).

  100. 100.

    T. H. Lloyd, The English Wool Trade in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1977), 216–17.

  101. 101.

    ‘Edward III: June 1369’, item 23, PROME, BHO.

  102. 102.

    Exports fell from 28,264 tuns in 1368–9 to 8945 tuns in 1369–70.

  103. 103.

    Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 391 (43 Edw. III, c.2); see also Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311, at 309–10; Lodge, Gascony under English Rule, 173.

  104. 104.

    ‘Edward III: June 1369’, item 23, PROME, BHO.

  105. 105.

    Ibid., 23; Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 391 (43 Edw. III, c.2).

  106. 106.

    Livre des bouillons, 147–8; customs returns calculated from Collection générale des documents français, vol. 1, 134–7 (no. ccxxiii). Revenues averaged £5848 13s 4d sterling per year during 1363–7, but £2996 12s 2d sterling per year in 1369–70.

  107. 107.

    R. Delachenal (ed.), Les Grandes chroniques de France: chronique des règnes de Jean II at de Charles V, 12 (Paris, 1916), 109–111; see also Barber, Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine, 181, 185–6, 206–11.

  108. 108.

    ‘Edward III: February 1371’, item 30, PROME, BHO; ‘Edward III: November 1372’, items 20, 48, PROME, BHO.

  109. 109.

    TNA, SC 8/229/11407; GSR, C 61/86: 30–2, 40–1, 45–6.

  110. 110.

    TNA, SC 8/229/11407; E 101/179/15, fol. 17r; GSR, C 61/86: 40; Livre des coutumes, 428; Livre des bouillons, 180–1.

  111. 111.

    GSR, C 61/122: 15.

  112. 112.

    Munimenta Gildhallae Londoniensis, 12:2, 205–11; GSR, C 61/108: 26; ‘Folio iii: Sept 1352’, in Calendar of Letter-Books of the City of London: G, 1352–1374, 1–13, BHO; Statutes of the Realm, vol. 2, 53 (11. Ric. II. c.7).

  113. 113.

    ‘Folio xli b – 13 March 1355–6’, in Cal. Letter-Book: G, 51–67, BHO; ‘Edward III: May 1368’, item 17, PROME, BHO; Statutes of the Realm, vol. 1, 389, (42 Edw. III, c.8).

  114. 114.

    Sargeant, ‘The Wine Trade with Gascony’, 257–311, at 303.

  115. 115.

    GSR, C 61/93: 57, 61.

  116. 116.

    James, Studies, 73.

  117. 117.

    PPC, vol. 3, 46–8.

  118. 118.

    Rose, The Wine Trade, 46, 62.

  119. 119.

    J. Craeybeckx, Les vins de France aux anciens Pays-Bas (Paris, 1958), 81–123.

  120. 120.

    TNA, C 61/74, mm. 1–4; C 61/101, m. 13, C 61/103, m. 6.

  121. 121.

    W. R. Childs, Anglo-Castilian Trade in the Later Middle Ages (Manchester, 1978), 126–36.

  122. 122.

    PPC, vol. 3, 47.

  123. 123.

    Childs, Anglo-Castilian Trade, 126–36.

  124. 124.

    M. Vale, ‘The Treaty of Windsor (1386) in a European context’, in The Treaty of Windsor (1386) and 620 Years of Anglo-Portuguese Relations, 2006, 1 (2008), 7.

  125. 125.

    W. R. Childs, Trade and Shipping in the Medieval West: Portugal, Castile and England: a series of lectures in memoriam for professor Armindo de Sousa, given in the University of Porto, November 2009 (Porto, 2013), 99–118.

  126. 126.

    Vale, English Gascony, 27–54.

  127. 127.

    GSR, C 61/112: 25; ‘Rymer’s Foedera with Syllabus: June 1408’, in Rymer’s Foedera, viii, (ed.) T. Rymer (London, 1739–45), 530–40, BHO; TNA, E 101/180/9, fol. 21r.

  128. 128.

    See J. J. N. Palmer, ‘The Anglo-French Peace Negotiations, 1390–1396’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 16 (1966), 81–94, at 85; Vale, English Gascony, 27–54; Lodge, Gascony under English Rule, 108–11.

  129. 129.

    Vale, English Gascony, 27–8.

  130. 130.

    Livre des bouillons, 195–196, 268; Palmer, ‘The Anglo-French Peace Negotiations’, 81–94, at 92–4.

  131. 131.

    Vale, English Gascony, 37–41; GSR, C 61/108: 28.

  132. 132.

    Lodge, Gascony under English rule, 158–9.

  133. 133.

    M. Bochaca, ‘Banlieues et détroits municipaux: Les espaces suburbains soumis à la juridiction des communes du Bordelais (xiiie–xvie siècles)’, Histoire, Économie et Société, 15:3 (1996), 353–65, at 357; M. Bochaca, La banlieue de Bordeaux: formation d’une juridiction municipale suburbaine, vers 1250-vers 1550 (Paris, 1997), 63–80.

  134. 134.

    The shop rented by the tailor Johan Boulomer appears in ducal accounts; see TNA, E 101/180/9, fol. 21r.

  135. 135.

    GSR, C 61/112: 25; ‘Rymer’s Foedera with Syllabus: June 1408’, in Rymer’s Foedera, viii, (ed.) T. Rymer (London, 1739–45), 530–40, BHO.

  136. 136.

    K. de Lettenhove, (ed.), Jean Froissart, Oeuvres, xvi, 1397–1400 (Brussels, 1872), 213–4, 216–7.

  137. 137.

    Lodge, Gascony under English rule, 158–9. The towns were named filleules of Bordeaux from at least the sixteenth century; see Gabriel de Lurbe, Chronique bourdeloise (Bordeaux, 1594), fol. 31v.

  138. 138.

    G. Pépin, ‘The French Offensives of 1404–1407 against Anglo-Gascon Aquitaine’, Journal of Medieval Military History, 9 (2011), 1–40.

  139. 139.

    RJ, ii, 306.

  140. 140.

    TNA, E 30/366; CCR, 1405–1409, 347–8.

  141. 141.

    PPC, vol 2, 264–6.

  142. 142.

    John Stow, ‘Vintrie warde’, in C. L. Kingsford (ed.), A Survey of London (Oxford, 1908), 238–50, BHO. The meeting must have taken place before 1407 as a new ballad sent by Henry Scogan was read at the event, and the poet died that year; see D. Gray, ‘Scogan, Henry (c.1361–1407)’, in ODNB.

  143. 143.

    L. S. Woodger, ‘JOHN, Lewis (d. 1442), of London and West Horndon, Essex’, in J. S. Roskell, L. Clark, C. Rawcliffe (eds.), The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1386–1421 (Woodbridge, 1993). Lewis also embarked on the 1415 Agincourt expedition but was invalided home after the siege of Harfleur.

  144. 144.

    ‘Henry V: October 1416’, item 18, PROME, BHO.

  145. 145.

    That there was a street in London named ‘Le Ryole’, dating from the early fourteenth century, testifies to the importance this town, ‘Sheriffs’ Court Roll, 1320: Membrane 26’, in M. Stevens (ed.), London Sheriffs Court Roll 1320 (London, 2010), 94–7, BHO.

  146. 146.

    ‘Henry V: October 1416’, item 18, PROME, BHO.

  147. 147.

    ‘Henry VI: May 1432’, item 43, ibid.; TNA, SC 8/336/15860.

  148. 148.

    ‘Henry VI: July 1433’, item 51, PROME, BHO; TNA, SC 8/26/1284.

  149. 149.

    ‘Memorials: 1381’, (Letter-Book H. fol. cxxxiii), in H. T. Riley (ed.), Memorials of London and London Life in the 13th, 14th and 15th Centuries (London, 1868), 449–51, BHO; ‘Richard II: November 1381’, item 107, PROME, BHO.

  150. 150.

    GSR, C 61/119: 83.

  151. 151.

    ‘Libelle of Englyshe Polycye’, in T. Wright (ed.), Political Poems and Songs Relating to English History, Composed during the Period from the Accession of Edward III to that of Richard III, 2 (London, 1861), 157–204.

  152. 152.

    J. Scattergood, ‘The Libelle of Englyshe Polycye: The nation and its place’, in H. Cooney (ed.) Nation, Court and Culture: New Essays on Fifteenth-Century English Poetry (Dublin, 2001), 28–49, at 47–9.

  153. 153.

    CCR, 1441–1447, 232–5.

  154. 154.

    Statutes of the Realm, vol. 2, 303–5 (18 Hen. VI, c.4).

  155. 155.

    ‘Henry VI: February 1445’, items 45–46, 51, PROME, BHO.

  156. 156.

    TNA, SC 8/199/9901; ‘Henry VI: February 1445’, item 46, PROME, BHO; exporters from Gascony had tried previously (c.1442) to avoid customs payments by shipping wine in hogsheads (barriques) of one-quarter tun; thereafter tax be paid no matter the size; see AHG, xvi, 264–5.

  157. 157.

    TNA, SC 8/190/9467; ‘Henry VI: February 1445’, items 45, 51, PROME, BHO; C 49/26/8.

  158. 158.

    ‘Petite chronique de Guyenne jusqu’à l’an 1442’, Bibliothèque de l’école des chartes, 47 (1886), 53–79, at 65; The Chronicles of Enguerrand de Monstrelet, (trns.) T. Johnes, 2 (London, 1840), 4; N. H. Nicolas (ed.), A Journal by One of the Suite of Thomas Beckington (London, 1828), 53.

  159. 159.

    TNA, E 101/192/1, fol. 62v; E 101/194/3, fol. 77r.

  160. 160.

    Journal of Beckington, 51.

  161. 161.

    TNA, E 101/192/1, fol. 62v; E 101/194/3, fol. 77r.

  162. 162.

    ‘Henry VI: February 1445’, items 45, 51, PROME, BHO.

  163. 163.

    Statutes of the Realm, vol. 2, 343 (23 Hen. VI, c.17).

  164. 164.

    TNA, E 101/194/3, fol 77r; E 101/195/19, fol. 77v.

  165. 165.

    TNA, E 364/84, m. 20; E 364/91, m. 13.

  166. 166.

    TNA, E 364/75, m. 5, 5 dorso; E 364/84, m. 20; E 364/91, m. 13.

  167. 167.

    AHG, i, 147–50.

  168. 168.

    For William Abraham’s election as sheriff, see ‘Folio 238b: Sept 1447’, in R. R. Sharpe (ed.), Calendar of Letter-Books of the City of London: K, Henry VI (London, 1911), 314–25, BHO.

  169. 169.

    Livre des bouillons, 533–41; Lodge, Gascony under English rule, 128.

  170. 170.

    ADG, G 311, fol. 84v. ‘Civitas Burdegale est Regni Francie’ is written at the top of the day’s proceedings.

  171. 171.

    Vale, ‘The Last Years’, 119–38, at 128–31.

  172. 172.

    This was the point made by E. M. Carus-Wilson, ‘The Effects of the Acquisition and of the Loss of Gascony on the English Wine Trade’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 21:63 (1947), 145–54, at 149–54.

  173. 173.

    See Blackmore, ‘The Political Economy of the Anglo-Gascon Wine Trade’, vol. 1, 123–38.

  174. 174.

    Lodge, Gascony under English rule, 128.

  175. 175.

    Livre des bouillons, 537–8.

  176. 176.

    Ibid.

  177. 177.

    Ibid., 538–9.

  178. 178.

    Carus-Wilson, ‘The Effects of the Acquisition and of the Loss’, 145–54, at 152.

  179. 179.

    Gabriel de Lurbe, Chronique bourdeloise, fol. 37.

  180. 180.

    D. A. Bailey, ‘Les Châteaux de Landiras et de Montferrand and Their Seigneurial Families—Part Two: Two Families—One Destiny’, Advances in Historical Studies, 2:3 (2013), 156–66, at 157.

  181. 181.

    Carus-Wilson, ‘The Effects of the Acquisition and of the Loss’, 145–54, at 152.

  182. 182.

    See James, Studies, 45–6.

  183. 183.

    Gabriel de Lurbe, Chronique bourdeloise, fol. 38v; see also Harris, Valois Guyenne, 48–9.

  184. 184.

    AHG, lvi, 34–42.

  185. 185.

    Renouard, ‘Les conséquences de la conquête de la Guienne’, 27; James, Studies, 47–50; Harris, Valois Guyenne, 48.

  186. 186.

    James, Studies, 58–9.

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Blackmore, R. (2020). The Politics of Markets. In: Government and Merchant Finance in Anglo-Gascon Trade, 1300–1500. Palgrave Studies in the History of Finance. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34536-5_2

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