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Sovereign Independence? Rhodesians and the Monarchy, 1965–1970

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Book cover Decolonisation, Identity and Nation in Rhodesia, 1964-1979

Part of the book series: Britain and the World ((BAW))

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Abstract

Kenrick examines the position of Queen Elizabeth II as Rhodesia’s head of state in the mid- to late 1960s. The changing position of the Monarch in white Rhodesian society is used to highlight how Rhodesian nationalism evolved in the years after declaring independence. The chapter outlines the history of the British royal family in settler societies around the world, exploring the concept of a ‘loyal rebellions’ against the British government but not the Crown. Kenrick shows how Rhodesia initially followed the route of a loyal rebellion, but was forced by its defence of white-minority rule to abandon the Queen and declare a republic in 1970. The chapter shows how, by disavowing the British Monarchy, Rhodesia became more like the non-settler colonies it criticised.

Parts of this chapter originally appeared as D. Kenrick, ‘Settler Soul-Searching and Sovereign Independence: The Monarchy and Rhodesia, 1965–70’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 44, 6 (2018), pp. 1077–1093.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Anon., Rhodesia’s Finest Hour (Salisbury, 1965).

  2. 2.

    As a relatively minor sop to ‘partnership’ the government ended official usage of the term ‘native’ in the mid-1950s. M.O. West, The Rise of an African Middle Class: Colonial Zimbabwe 1898–1965 (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 30.

  3. 3.

    A. Megahey, Humphrey Gibbs Beleaguered Governor: Southern Rhodesia 1929–69 (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1998) provides the most comprehensive account of Gibbs’ difficult tenure as Governor during the UDI years.

  4. 4.

    The author thanks Donal Lowry for this point.

  5. 5.

    D. Lowry, ‘Ulster Resistance and Loyalist Rebellion in the Empire’, in K. Jeffery (ed.), ‘An Irish Empire’? Aspects of Ireland and the British Empire (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1996), pp. 191–215; P. Pickering, ‘Loyalty and Rebellion in Colonial Politics: The Campaign Against Convict Transportation in Australia’, in P. Buckner & R.D. Francis (eds.), Rediscovering the British World (Calgary, Calgary University Press, 2005), pp. 87–89.

  6. 6.

    Pickering, ‘Loyalty and Rebellion’, pp. 87–89.

  7. 7.

    P. Buckner, ‘The Long Goodbye: English Canadians and the British World’, in P. Buckner & R.D. Francis (eds.), Rediscovering the British World (Calgary, Calgary University Press, 2005), pp. 181–207; J. Lambert, ‘An Unknown People: Reconstructing British South African Identity’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 37, 4 (2009), p. 604; J. Lambert, ‘“Their Finest Hour?” English-Speaking South Africans and World War II’, South African Historical Journal, 60, 1 (2008), p. 61.

  8. 8.

    Reed, Royal Tourists, pp. 8–9.

  9. 9.

    D. Cannadine, ‘The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the “Invention of Tradition”, c.1820–1977’, in E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 101–164; C. Reed, Royal Tourists, Colonial Subjects and the Making of a British World 1860–1911 (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2016) provides an excellent overview of the monarchy’s place in the empire from the late nineteenth century.

  10. 10.

    A. Thompson, ‘The Languages of Loyalism in Southern Africa, c.1870–1939’, English Historical Review, 118, 477 (2003), pp. 617–650; B. Schwarz, The White Man’s World (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 22.

  11. 11.

    M. McKenna, ‘Monarchy: From Reverence to Indifference’, in D.M. Schreuder & S. Ward (eds.), Australia’s Empire (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 262.

  12. 12.

    Reed, Royal Tourists, pp. 14–18.

  13. 13.

    Ibid., p. 14.

  14. 14.

    H. Sapire & A. Grundlingh, ‘Rebuffing Royals? Afrikaners and the Royal Visit to South Africa in 1947’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 46, 3 (2018), pp. 524–551.

  15. 15.

    Reed, Royal Tourists, p. 276.

  16. 16.

    J. Darwin, ‘A Third British Empire? The Dominion Idea in Imperial Politics’, in J. Brown & Wm. Roger Louis (eds.), The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV: The Twentieth Century (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 76; D. Lowry, ‘The Crown, Empire Loyalism and the Assimilation of Non-British White Subjects in the British World: An Argument Against Determinism’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 31, 2 (2003), pp. 96–120.

  17. 17.

    See P. Limb, ‘The Empire Writes Back: African Challenges to the Brutish (South African) Empire in the Early 20th Century’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 41, 3 (2015), p. 610 for an African example.

  18. 18.

    Lowry, ‘Ulster Resistance’, p. 195.

  19. 19.

    Peter Joyce, Anatomy of Rebel: Smith of Rhodesia (Salisbury, Graham Publishing, 1974), p. 223.

  20. 20.

    ‘Constitution is “Interim”—Lardner-Burke’, The Rhodesia Herald, 17 November 1965, p. 1. Italics added by author.

  21. 21.

    Rhodesia Parliamentary Debates, 62, 1965, 991.

  22. 22.

    Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom, p. 78.

  23. 23.

    Buckner, ‘Canada and the End of Empire’, p. 115.

  24. 24.

    See ‘The Queen and the Commonwealth’, accessed on 25 August 2015, at http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/Overview.aspx, for explanations of the Queen’s relationship with the individual Commonwealth Realms. Besides the UK and those listed above, the other realms are Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu. C. Schofield, Enoch Powell and the Making of Postcolonial Britain (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 99.

  25. 25.

    Mrs. A. Whatling, ‘Let Us Show the World’, The Rhodesia Herald, 22 November 1965, p. 9.

  26. 26.

    Iain Braid-Smith, ‘Go Whole Hog and Declare Us an Independent Republic’, The Rhodesia Herald, 25 November 1965, p. 13.

  27. 27.

    ‘A Loyal Rhodesian’, ‘Monarchy Outmoded’, The Rhodesia Herald, 24 November 1965, p. 9.

  28. 28.

    ‘Shovel’, ‘Many Are Torn Between Conflicting Loyalties’, The Rhodesia Herald, 22 November 1965, p. 7.

  29. 29.

    Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Braid-Smith, ‘Go Whole Hog’, The Rhodesia Herald, p. 13.

  31. 31.

    Ibid., p. 13.

  32. 32.

    Ibid. It is not known which book managed to attract the most signatures.

  33. 33.

    Meg Becker, ‘These Traitors to Our Country’, The Rhodesia Herald, 19 November 1965, p. 10.

  34. 34.

    See P. Berlyn, Rhodesia: Beleaguered Country (London, The Mitre Press, 1967), pp. 106–109; quote from p. 106.

  35. 35.

    H Bendyshe, ‘The Book—Why He Signed’, The Rhodesia Herald, 26 November 1965, p. 15.

  36. 36.

    ‘D.P.’, ‘Tragic Conflict of Loyalties’, The Rhodesia Herald, 27 November 1965, p. 7.

  37. 37.

    Schwarz, The White Man’s World, p. 413.

  38. 38.

    Quoted in L. Bowman, Politics in Rhodesia: White Power in an African State (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1973), p. 118.

  39. 39.

    Berlyn, Rhodesia: Beleaguered Country, p. 107; P. Berlyn, The Quiet Man: A Biography of the Hon. Ian Douglas Smith, I.D. Prime Minister of Rhodesia (Salisbury, M.O. Collins, 1978).

  40. 40.

    Rhodesian Ministry of Information, Rhodesian Commentary, 1, 27 (27 January 1967), p. 6.

  41. 41.

    Ibid.

  42. 42.

    Rhodesian Ministry of Information, Rhodesian Commentary, 1, 45 (9 October 1967), p. 1.

  43. 43.

    Murphy, Monarchy and the End of Empire, pp. 101–102.

  44. 44.

    P. Murphy, ‘Government by Blackmail: The Origins of the Central African Federation Reconsidered’, in M. Lynn (ed.), The British Empire in the 1950s—Retreat or Revival? (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 53–57.

  45. 45.

    Schwarz, The White Man’s World, p. 7.

  46. 46.

    See D. Cole, ‘The Problem of “Nationalism” and “Imperialism” in British Settlement Colonies’, The Journal of British Studies, 10, 2 (May, 1971), pp. 160–182 for an early dispelling of this imperial versus national binary.

  47. 47.

    J.G.A. Pocock, ‘Conclusion: Contingency, Identity, Sovereignty’, in A. Grant & K.J. Stringer (eds.), Uniting the Kingdom: The Making of British History (London, Routledge, 1995), p. 297.

  48. 48.

    P. Murphy, ‘An Intricate and Distasteful Subject: British Planning for the Use of Force Against the European Settlers of Central Africa, 1952–65’, English Historical Review, 121, 492 (2006), pp. 746–777; C. Watts, ‘Killing Kith and Kin: The Viability of British Military Intervention in Rhodesia, 1964–65’, Twentieth Century British History, 16, 4 (2005), pp. 382–415.

  49. 49.

    L. Witz, Apartheid’s Festival: Contesting South Africa’s National Pasts (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 93–94. See also P. Buckner, ‘The Royal Tour of 1901 and the Construction of an Imperial Identity in South Africa’, South African Historical Journal, 41, 1 (1999), pp. 324–348.

  50. 50.

    See D. Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom: Power, Apartheid, and the Afrikaner Civil Religion (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980), pp. 111, 285.

  51. 51.

    Figures from P.S. Thompson, Natalians First: Separatism in South Africa 1909–1961 (Johannesburg, Southern Book Publishers, 1990), p. 166; See also J. Lambert, ‘The Last Outpost—The Natalians, South Africa, and the British Empire’, in R. Bickers (ed.), Settlers and Expatriates: Britons Over the Seas (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 173.

  52. 52.

    McKenna, ‘Monarchy: From Reverence to Indifference’, pp. 279–281.

  53. 53.

    Buckner, ‘The Long Goodbye’, p. 202.

  54. 54.

    J. Darwin, ‘Was There a Fourth British Empire?’, in M. Lynn (ed.), The British Empire in the 1950s—Retreat or Revival? (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 16–31.

  55. 55.

    Later, some states that had not been British colonies, such as Rwanda and Mozambique, would also join.

  56. 56.

    P. Murphy, The Empire’s New Clothes: The Myth of the Commonwealth (London, Hurst and Company, 2018). Murphy’s book provides a witty and insightful deconstruction of the organisation.

  57. 57.

    C. Watts, Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence: An International History (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).

  58. 58.

    P. Murphy, ‘The African Queen? Republicanism and Defensive Decolonisation in British Tropical Africa 1958–1964’, Twentieth Century British History, 14, 3 (2003), p. 262; see also P. Murphy, Monarchy and the End of Empire: The House of Windsor, the British Government, and the Postwar Commonwealth (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013).

  59. 59.

    Though this speech will have been drafted by the anti-settler Jamaican government and was given in her capacity as Queen of Jamaica, Murphy’s work outlining how cautious the Palace was regarding this issue suggests that they could have requested that the speech be amended if they had wanted to. I thank Josiah Brownell for raising this point.

  60. 60.

    Cory Library, Rhodes University, Grahamstown (hereafter CL) (Smith Papers), Cabinet Memoranda, R.C. (S) (66) 107, ‘Constitutional Advance’, 28 March 1966, p. 2.

  61. 61.

    Ibid.

  62. 62.

    Megahey, Humphrey Gibbs, pp. 139, 145; T. Ranger, ‘Violence Variously Remembered: The Killing of Pieter Oberholzer in July 1964’, History in Africa, 24 (1997), pp. 273–286.

  63. 63.

    M. Facchini, ‘The “Evil Genius”: Sir Hugh Beadle and the Rhodesian Crisis, 1965–1972’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 33, 3 (September 2007), p. 684.

  64. 64.

    Ibid., p. 685.

  65. 65.

    P. Murphy, ‘“An Intricate and Distasteful Subject”: British Planning for the Use of Force Against the European Settlers of Central Africa, 1952–65’, English Historical Review, CXXI, 492 (June 2006), pp. 746–777; C. Watts, ‘Killing Kith and Kin: The Viability of British Military Intervention in Rhodesia, 1964–65’, Twentieth Century British History, 16, 4 (2005), pp. 382–415.

  66. 66.

    M. Facchini, ‘The Evil Genius’, p. 675.

  67. 67.

    R. Blake, A History of Rhodesia (London, Methuen, 1977), p. 367.

  68. 68.

    Watts, ‘Killing Kith and Kin’, p. 394.

  69. 69.

    Ibid., p. 395.

  70. 70.

    L. Bowman, Politics in Rhodesia: White Power in an African State (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1973), p. 141.

  71. 71.

    C. Palley, ‘The Judicial Process: U.D.I. and the Southern Rhodesian Judiciary’, The Modern Law Review, 30 (May 1967), pp. 263–287.

  72. 72.

    CL (Smith Papers), Cabinet Memoranda, R.C. (S) (67) 74—‘Queen’s Birthday, 1967’—6 April 1967.

  73. 73.

    CL (Smith Papers), Cabinet Memoranda, R.C. (S) (68) 75—‘Queen’s Birthday’—8 April 1968.

  74. 74.

    Godwin & Hancock, Rhodesians Never Die, p. 62.

  75. 75.

    Ibid., p. 51.

  76. 76.

    Report of the Constitutional Commission 1968 (Salisbury, Government Printer, 1968), p. 119.

  77. 77.

    Ibid.

  78. 78.

    Ibid., p. 120.

  79. 79.

    Ibid., p. 121.

  80. 80.

    Rhodesia Parliamentary Debates, 73, 1968–69, 1146.

  81. 81.

    J. Brownell, ‘Out of Time: Global Settlerism, Nostalgia, and the Selling of the Rhodesian Rebellion Overseas’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 43, 4 (2017), pp. 805–824.

  82. 82.

    Rhodesia Parliamentary Debates, 73, 1302.

  83. 83.

    D. Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 106–108.

  84. 84.

    Rhodesia Parliamentary Debates, 73, 1335.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., 1488.

  86. 86.

    BBC Monitoring Archive, Caversham Park, Reading (hereafter BBCMA) (Summary of World Broadcasts) SE ME 3080/B/1-5, ‘Ian Smith’s 20.5.69 Broadcast to the Rhodesians’, 22 May 1969.

  87. 87.

    Ibid.

  88. 88.

    Ibid.

  89. 89.

    Ibid.

  90. 90.

    Ibid.

  91. 91.

    H.R. Strack, Sanctions the Case of Rhodesia (Syracuse, 1978); L. White, ‘What Does It Take to Be a State? Sovereignty and Sanctions in Rhodesia, 1965–1980’, in L. White & D. Howland (eds.), State of Sovereignty: Territories, Laws, Populations (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2009), pp. 148–168.

  92. 92.

    BBCMA (Summary of World Broadcasts) SE ME 3080/B/1-5, ‘Ian Smith’s 20.5.69 Broadcast to the Rhodesians’, 22 May 1969.

  93. 93.

    Quoted in Megahey, Humphrey Gibbs, p. 167.

  94. 94.

    Mrs. R. Archdale, ‘Still Fortunate to Be British’, The Rhodesia Herald, 12 June 1969, p. 11.

  95. 95.

    ‘Significance of Sir Humphrey’, The Rhodesia Herald, 13 June 1969, p. 14.

  96. 96.

    ‘A Break with the Past—Malvern, Welensky’, The Rhodesia Herald, 13 June 1969, p. 2.

  97. 97.

    Blake, A History of Rhodesia, pp. 364–366.

  98. 98.

    ‘Despite Difficulties Gibbs Has Pursued Loyal Way for Good of Rhodesia’, The Rhodesia Herald, 14 June 1969, p. 7.

  99. 99.

    Eric G. Cook, ‘Disastrous RF Policy Has Created Fear Complex, Distrust and Disharmony’, The Rhodesia Herald, 18 June 1969, p. 18.

  100. 100.

    ‘No Fooling!’, The Rhodesia Herald, 17 June 1969, p. 8.

  101. 101.

    ‘The Point of No Return’, The Rhodesia Herald, 9 June 1969, p. 4.

  102. 102.

    These speakers included P.H. Mkudu, leader of the opposition in Parliament (28 May 1969); Minister of Agriculture David Smith (2 June 1969); Independent MP Robin James for the Conservative Association of Rhodesia (6 June 1969); P.K. van der Byl for the government (9 June 1969); GL Chavunduka for the Democratic Party (13 June 1969); Jack Howman for the government (16 June 1969); and Pat Bashford for the Centre Party (18 June 1969). (BBCMA) (Summary of World Broadcasts), SS ME 3086-3104, 30 May–20 June 1969.

  103. 103.

    (BBCMA) (Summary of World Broadcasts) SS ME 3104/B 1-3, ‘Rhodesia: Bashford’s Referendum Campaign Broadcast’, 18 June 1969.

  104. 104.

    (BBCMA) (Summary of World Broadcasts), SS ME 3090, ‘The Rhodesian Referendum: Agriculture Minister’s Broadcast’, 4 June 1969.

  105. 105.

    Bowman, Politics in Rhodesia, p. 139.

  106. 106.

    Ibid., p. 140.

  107. 107.

    ‘Decisive on Both Counts’, The Rhodesia Herald, 21 June 1969, p. 1.

  108. 108.

    ‘In Parliament Yesterday’, The Rhodesia Herald, 28 June 1969, p. 4.

  109. 109.

    Godwin & Hancock, Rhodesians Never Die, p. 51.

  110. 110.

    Godwin & Hancock, Rhodesians Never Die, pp. 51–52; ‘“The State” Not “The Queen” Is Prosecutor’, The Rhodesia Herald, 4 March 1970, p. 1; ‘RRAF Alters Flag, Signs’, The Rhodesia Herald, 6 March 1970, p. 1.

  111. 111.

    ‘Terms After Change to Republic’, The Rhodesia Herald, 7 March 1970, p. 7.

  112. 112.

    H.J.W. Roberts, ‘As President, Gibbs Would Carry Out Duties Loyally’, The Rhodesia Herald, 7 March 1970, p. 5.

  113. 113.

    J. Brownell, ‘“A Sordid Tussle on the Strand”: Rhodesia House During the UDI Rebellion (1965–1980)’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 38, 3 (2010), p. 487.

  114. 114.

    C. Dupont, The Reluctant President (Bulawayo, 1978).

  115. 115.

    White, Unpopular Sovereignty, pp. 149–176; R. Hodder-Williams, ‘Rhodesia’s Search for a Constitution: Or, Whatever Happened to Whaley?’, African Affairs, 69, 276 (July 1970), pp. 217–235.

  116. 116.

    D.I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics & Power, p. 178.

  117. 117.

    I. Smith, Bitter Harvest (London, Blake, 2008). See Schwarz, The White Man’s World, pp. 414–415 for an analysis of these memoirs.

  118. 118.

    Schwarz, The White Man’s World, p. 396.

  119. 119.

    Berlyn, The Quiet Man, p. 35.

  120. 120.

    Ibid., pp. 42–45.

  121. 121.

    Ibid., pp. 48–79.

  122. 122.

    Anthem for Doomed Youth, Writers and Literature of The Great War, 1914–1918, ‘Vitai Lampada’, accessed at http://exhibits.lib.byu.edu/wwi/influences/vitai.html on 2 July 2019.

  123. 123.

    Ibid., pp. 80–81.

  124. 124.

    Ibid.

  125. 125.

    Berlyn, The Quiet Man; P. Joyce, Anatomy of a Rebel: A Biography of Smith of Rhodesia (Salisbury, 1974).

  126. 126.

    J. Edmond, Story of Troopiesongs, p. 104. See Chapter 5 for the lyrics to ‘The Last Word in Rhodesian’ and for more on Edmond.

  127. 127.

    Berlyn, The Quiet Man.

  128. 128.

    Ibid., p. 88.

  129. 129.

    Ibid., p. 25.

  130. 130.

    Joyce, Anatomy of a Rebel.

  131. 131.

    Ibid., pp. 18–19.

  132. 132.

    (BBCMA) (Summary of World Broadcasts) SS ME 3227/B/12, ‘Rhodesia: “Look Back in Pride”, Commentary on UDI Anniversary’, 10 November 1969.

  133. 133.

    Schwarz, The White Man’s World, p. 22.

  134. 134.

    (CL) (Smith Papers) Cabinet Memoranda—S.R.C. (S) (64) 360—‘Draft White Paper: Consultation with Tribal and Traditional Leaders: Chiefs and Headmen’, 30 November 1964, p. 16.

  135. 135.

    Ibid.

  136. 136.

    J. Alexander, The Unsettled Land: State Making and the Politics of Land in Zimbabwe 1893–2003 (Oxford, James Currey, 2006), p. 9; T. Ranger, ‘Tradition and Travesty: Chiefs and the Administration in Makoni District, Zimbabwe, 1960–1980’, Journal of the International African Institute, 52, 3 (1982), pp. 20–41.

  137. 137.

    Ranger, ‘Tradition and Travesty’, p. 23.

  138. 138.

    Alexander, The Unsettled Land; Ranger, ‘Tradition and Travesty’.

  139. 139.

    Rhodesia Parliamentary Debates, 75, 1969, 1118.

  140. 140.

    F. Cooper, Africa Since 1940: The Past of the Present (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 89. See Larmer & Kennes, The Katangese Gendarmes; C. Achebe, The Was a Country: A Personal History of Biafra (London, Penguin, 2012) for Katanga and Biafra respectively.

  141. 141.

    C.J. Makgula, ‘Neil Parsons, National Coat of Arms, and Introduction of the Pula Currency in Botswana, 1975–1976’, South African Historical Journal, 66, 3 (2014), pp. 504–520.

  142. 142.

    Larmer & Kennes, The Katangese Gendarmes, p. 5.

  143. 143.

    See the introduction for an indication of these differing views.

  144. 144.

    D. Lowry, ‘The Lost Dominion’, p. 115.

  145. 145.

    The author thanks Josiah Brownell for this point.

  146. 146.

    Popular Rhodesian folk singer John Edmond released a song named ‘Green and White’ in 1976, see J. Edmond, The Story of Troopiesongs and the Rhodesian Bush War (Johannesburg, 1982), p. 85 for lyrics and Edmond’s commentary.

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Kenrick, D. (2019). Sovereign Independence? Rhodesians and the Monarchy, 1965–1970. In: Decolonisation, Identity and Nation in Rhodesia, 1964-1979. Britain and the World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32698-2_5

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