Skip to main content

Short Paper: An Exploration of Code Diversity in the Cryptocurrency Landscape

  • Conference paper
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science ((LNSC,volume 11598))

Abstract

Interest in cryptocurrencies has skyrocketed since their introduction a decade ago, with hundreds of billions of dollars now invested across a landscape of thousands of different cryptocurrencies. While there is significant diversity, there is also a significant number of scams as people seek to exploit the current popularity. In this paper, we seek to identify the extent of innovation in the cryptocurrency landscape using the open-source repositories associated with each one. Among other findings, we observe that while many cryptocurrencies are largely unchanged copies of Bitcoin, the use of Ethereum as a platform has enabled the deployment of cryptocurrencies with more diverse functionalities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    https://coinmarketcap.com/historical/20130721/.

  2. 2.

    https://deadcoins.com/.

  3. 3.

    https://magoo.github.io/Blockchain-Graveyard/.

  4. 4.

    https://github.com/manganese/alteramentum-repo-data.

  5. 5.

    https://etherscan.io/.

  6. 6.

    https://github.com/AlDanial/cloc.

  7. 7.

    https://github.com/Zerocoin/libzerocoin.

  8. 8.

    Interestingly, these sets were non-intersecting; i.e., there was no contract in a repository that was identical to a deployed one.

References

  1. Apostolaki, M., Zohar, A., Vanbever, L.: Hijacking Bitcoin: routing attacks on cryptocurrencies. In: 2017 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, San Jose, CA, USA, 22–26 May 2017, pp. 375–392. IEEE Computer Society Press (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  2. Azouvi, S., Maller, M., Meiklejohn, S.: Egalitarian society or benevolent dictatorship: the state of cryptocurrency governance. In: Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Bitcoin and Blockchain Research (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  3. Bartoletti, M., Carta, S., Cimoli, T., Saia, R.: Dissecting Ponzi schemes on Ethereum: identification, analysis, and impact (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  4. Biryukov, A., Khovratovich, D., Pustogarov, I.: Deanonymisation of clients in Bitcoin P2P network. In: Ahn, G.-J., Yung, M., Li, N. (eds.) ACM CCS 2014, Scottsdale, AZ, USA, 3–7 November 2014, pp. 15–29. ACM Press (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bos, J.W., Halderman, J.A., Heninger, N., Moore, J., Naehrig, M., Wustrow, E.: Elliptic curve cryptography in practice. In: Christin, N., Safavi-Naini, R. (eds.) FC 2014. LNCS, vol. 8437, pp. 157–175. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45472-5_11

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  6. Chen, W., Zheng, Z., Cui, J., Ngai, E., Zheng, P., Zhou, Y.: Detecting Ponzi schemes on Ethereum: towards healthier blockchain technology. In: Proceedings of the 2018 World Wide Web Conference (WWW) (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  7. David, B., Gaži, P., Kiayias, A., Russell, A.: Ouroboros praos: an adaptively-secure, semi-synchronous proof-of-stake blockchain. In: Nielsen, J.B., Rijmen, V. (eds.) EUROCRYPT 2018, Part II. LNCS, vol. 10821, pp. 66–98. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78375-8_3

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  8. Donet, J.A.D., Pérez-Solà, C., Herrera-Joancomartí, J.: The Bitcoin P2P network. In: Böhme, R., Brenner, M., Moore, T., Smith, M. (eds.) FC 2014. LNCS, vol. 8438, pp. 87–102. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44774-1_7

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  9. Eyal, I., Gencer, A.E., Sirer, E.G., van Renesse, R.: Bitcoin-ng: a scalable blockchain protocol. In: Proceedings of NSDI 2016 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  10. Gencer, A.E., Basu, S., Eyal, I., Renesse, R.V., Sirer, E.G.: Decentralization in Bitcoin and Ethereum networks. In: Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security (FC) (2018)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  11. Gervais, A., Karame, G.O., Wüst, K., Glykantzis, V., Ritzdorf, H., Capkun, S.: On the security and performance of proof of work blockchains. In: Weippl, E.R., Katzenbeisser, S., Kruegel, C., Myers, A.C., Halevi, S. (eds.) ACM CCS 2016, Vienna, Austria, 24–28 October 2016, pp. 3–16. ACM Press (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  12. Hu, Y., Zhang, J., Bai, X., Yu, S., Yang, Z.: Influence analysis of GitHub repositories. SpringerPlus 5(1), 1268 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Huang, D.Y., Levchenko, K., Snoeren, A.C.: Measuring profitability of alternative crypto-currencies. In: Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security (FC) (2018)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  14. Kappos, G., Yousaf, H., Maller, M., Meiklejohn, S.: An empirical analysis of anonymity in Zcash. In: Proceedings of the USENIX Security Symposium (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  15. Kiayias, A., Russell, A., David, B., Oliynykov, R.: Ouroboros: a provably secure proof-of-stake blockchain protocol. In: Katz, J., Shacham, H. (eds.) CRYPTO 2017, Part I. LNCS, vol. 10401, pp. 357–388. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63688-7_12

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  16. Kogias, E.K., Jovanovic, P., Gailly, N., Khoffi, I., Gasser, L., Ford, B.: Enhancing Bitcoin security and performance with strong consistency via collective signing. In: Proceedings of USENIX Security 2016 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  17. Kokoris-Kogias, E., Jovanovic, P., Gasser, L., Gailly, N., Ford, B.: Omniledger: a secure, scale-out, decentralized ledger. In: Proceedings of the 39th IEEE Symposium on Security & Privacy (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  18. Koshy, P., Koshy, D., McDaniel, P.: An analysis of anonymity in Bitcoin using P2P network traffic. In: Christin, N., Safavi-Naini, R. (eds.) FC 2014. LNCS, vol. 8437, pp. 469–485. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45472-5_30

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  19. Luu, L., Narayanan, V., Zheng, C., Baweja, K., Gilbert, S., Saxena, P.: A secure sharding protocol for open blockchains. In: Weippl, E.R., Katzenbeisser, S., Kruegel, C., Myers, A.C., Halevi, S. (eds.) ACM CCS 2016, Vienna, Austria, 24–28 October 2016, pp. 17–30. ACM Press (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  20. Meiklejohn, S., et al.: A fistful of bitcoins: characterizing payments among men with no names. In: Proceedings of the 2013 Internet Measurement Conference (IMC), pp. 127–140 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  21. Moore, T., Christin, N.: Beware the middleman: empirical analysis of Bitcoin-exchange risk. In: Sadeghi, A.-R. (ed.) FC 2013. LNCS, vol. 7859, pp. 25–33. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39884-1_3

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  22. Möser, M., et al.: An empirical analysis of linkability in the Monero blockchain. Proc. Privacy Enhancing Technol. 2016(3), 143–163 (2018)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Nakamoto, S.: Bitcoin: a peer-to-peer electronic cash system (2008). bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf

  24. Ray, B., Posnett, D., Filkov, V., Devanbu, P.: A large scale study of programming languages and code quality in GitHub. In: Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGSOFT International Symposium on Foundations of Software Engineering (FSE), pp. 155–165 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  25. Reid, F., Harrigan, M.: An analysis of anonymity in the Bitcoin system. In: Altshuler, Y., Elovici, Y., Cremers, A., Aharony, N., Pentland, A. (eds.) Security and Privacy in Social Networks, pp. 197–223. Springer, New York (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4139-7_10

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  26. Ron, D., Shamir, A.: Quantitative analysis of the full Bitcoin transaction graph. In: Sadeghi, A.-R. (ed.) FC 2013. LNCS, vol. 7859, pp. 6–24. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39884-1_2

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  27. Spagnuolo, M., Maggi, F., Zanero, S.: BitIodine: extracting intelligence from the Bitcoin network. In: Christin, N., Safavi-Naini, R. (eds.) FC 2014. LNCS, vol. 8437, pp. 457–468. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45472-5_29

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  28. Syta, E., et al.: Keeping authorities “honest or bust” with decentralized witness cosigning. In: 2016 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, San Jose, CA, USA, 22–26 May 2016, pp. 526–545. IEEE Computer Society Press (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  29. Thung, F., Bissyandé, T.F., Lo, D., Jiang, L.: Network structure of social coding in GitHub. In: Proceedings of the 17th European Conference on Software Maintenance and Reengineering (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  30. Vasek, M., Bonneau, J., Castellucci, R., Keith, C., Moore, T.: The Bitcoin brain drain: examining the use and abuse of Bitcoin brain wallets. In: Grossklags, J., Preneel, B. (eds.) FC 2016. LNCS, vol. 9603, pp. 609–618. Springer, Heidelberg (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54970-4_36

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  31. Vasek, M., Moore, T.: There’s no free lunch, even using Bitcoin: tracking the popularity and profits of virtual currency scams. In: Böhme, R., Okamoto, T. (eds.) FC 2015. LNCS, vol. 8975, pp. 44–61. Springer, Heidelberg (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47854-7_4

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  32. Vasek, M., Moore, T.: Analyzing the Bitcoin Ponzi scheme ecosystem. In: Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Bitcoin and Blockchain Research (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  33. Vasek, M., Thornton, M., Moore, T.: Empirical analysis of denial-of-service attacks in the Bitcoin ecosystem. In: Böhme, R., Brenner, M., Moore, T., Smith, M. (eds.) FC 2014. LNCS, vol. 8438, pp. 57–71. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44774-1_5

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  34. Zhu, J., Zhou, M., Mockus, A.: Patterns of folder use and project popularity: a case study of Github repositories. In: Proceedings of the 8th ACM/IEEE International Symposium on Empirical Software Engineering and Measurement (2014)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors were supported in part by EPSRC Grant EP/N028104/1 and in part by the EU H2020 TITANIUM project under grant agreement number 740558.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Meiklejohn .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 International Financial Cryptography Association

About this paper

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this paper

Reibel, P., Yousaf, H., Meiklejohn, S. (2019). Short Paper: An Exploration of Code Diversity in the Cryptocurrency Landscape. In: Goldberg, I., Moore, T. (eds) Financial Cryptography and Data Security. FC 2019. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 11598. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32101-7_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32101-7_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-32100-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-32101-7

  • eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics