Conferences at Prague and Bergen and the Looming War

Pemberton, Jo-Anne

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-31827-7_3

Conferences at Prague and Bergen and the Looming War

Jo-Anne Pemberton⁸

Chapter
First Online: 17 March 2020

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Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in International Relations ((PSIR))

Abstract

The 1938 session of the ISC took place in Prague in May against the background of Czechoslovakia’s partial mobilisation. No Italian or Austrian delegation was present: Italy had quit the LON and the Anschluss entailed the liquidation of the conference’s Austrian unit. It was the last ISC session attended by a German representative. Discussion largely concerned the teaching of international relations. In this context, the study of collective psychology was urged: the study of the powerful currents of thought driving events. The 1939 session took place in late August in Bergen under the heading of Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace. The consensus was that future international economic policy must be oriented towards social needs no less than commercial relations and that for the latter to flourish effective coercive mechanisms are needed in order to guarantee against pillage and conquest. In late November, a meeting of the Institute of Pacific Relations (IPR) opened at Virginia Beach, Virginia. It focussed on the impact of the European war on Asian international relations, notably on the capacity of Free China to maintain its resistance against Japan and on Japanese policy in respect to the holdings of European powers in Southeast Asia.

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Notes

1.
Chalmers Wright to Leo Gross, 24 September 1936, AG IICI-K-II-6, UA.
2.
International Studies Conference, Peaceful Change: Procedures, Population, Raw Materials, Colonies, 609.
3.
Persons Participating in the Conference on Solutions, May 21 and 22, 1937, AG-IICI-K-I-16.a, UA.
4.
John Foster Dulles to Dr. Sydnor H. Walker, 17 November 1937, Fondation Rockefeller, à partir du 1^er septembre 1937, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
5.
Wm. O. Scroggs to Bonnet, 20 April 1938, Peaceful change: Groupes internationaux d’études (Procédures), jusqu’au 1^er mai 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-18.q, UA. William O. Scroggs also stated in his letter to Bonnet the following: ‘While you may not regard this as good news, I am happy to inform you that our Committee is undertaking to cooperate whole-heartedly in other features of the program for the next study meeting of the Conference. For some time our work has been retarded because of delay in completing certain plans for the revision of the Committee’s working methods. A satisfactory plan has at last been worked out and adopted, and the Rockefeller Foundation has just placed new funds at the disposal of the Committee to finance the work during 1938 and 1939. We are now ready, therefore, to move forward at full speed.’ See also Leo Gross to Maurice Bourquin, 3 May 1938, AG 1-IICI-K-I-18.q, UA, and Scroggs to Bonnet, 13 May 1936, and attached memorandum on the Plan for the Organization of an American Coordinating Committee to Replace the Council on Foreign Relations as the American Member of the International Studies Conference, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales, 1^er novembre-1935–18 novembre 1937, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.u, UA. For Shotwell’s role at Madrid and his presence at Paris, see respectively, Bourquin, ed., Collective Security, 24, and International Studies Conference, Peaceful Change: Procedures, Population, Raw Materials, Colonies, 630.
6.
C. K. Leith to Dr. Sydnor H. Walker, 2 October 1937, and memorandum of Vera Micheles Dean sent to Dr. Sydnor H. Walker, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
7.
Copy of Memorandum sent by Vera Micheles Dean, Editor of Foreign Policy Association, answering certain questions raised in Miss Walker’s letter to Mr. Allsberg regarding the ISC, 2 October 1937, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA. See also ‘Appendix 1: Conference Membership and Committees,’ in Holland and Mitchell, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1936, 439, 441.
8.
Tracey B. Kittredge, Preliminary analysis of replies to letters concerning the progress of the International Studies Conference, Paris, September 26, 1937, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA. For the occupations of Célestin Bouglé, Tracey B. Kittredge, Pál Teleki, and Eric Voegelin see ‘List of Participants,’ in International Studies Conference, Peaceful Change, 622, 626, 630–31.
9.
Ibid.
10.
Condliffe to Kittredge, 18 September 1937, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
11.
Ibid.
12.
Ibid.
13.
Ibid.
14.
Ibid.
15.
J. B. Condliffe, Markets and the Problem of Peaceful Change (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1938), 3–4.
16.
International Studies Conference, Peaceful Change: Procedures, Population, Raw Materials, Colonies, 12.
17.
Ibid., 12–13.
18.
Condliffe, Markets and the Problem of Peaceful Change, 3.
19.
Condliffe to Gross, 10 December 1937, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales: Comité exécutif, à partir de 1^er septembre, 1937 à décembre 1946, AG-IICI-K-I-2, UA, and Condliffe, Markets and the Problem of Peaceful Change, 3.
20.
Condliffe, Markets and the Problem of Peaceful Change, 3.
21.
Condliffe to Kittredge, 18 September 1937, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
22.
Ibid.
23.
Ibid.
24.
‘La XI^th session de la Conférence permanente des hautes études Internationales aura pour subjet “Les Politiques Économique et la Paix”,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 85–86 (1938): 1–15, 1–2, and League of Nations, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1938 (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, 1939), 24. For Vranek’s past and current occupations see Appendix D: Eighth International Studies Conference, Department of International Politics, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1934–1935, Reports on Activities of the British Co-ordinating Committee for International Studies, AG 1-IICI-K-VI-1, UA. International Studies Conference, Peaceful Change: Procedures, Population, Raw Materials, Colonies, 633.
25.
International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, ed., League of Nations, Sixth International Studies Conference: A Record of a Second Study Conference of the State and Economic Life, Held in London, May 29 to June 2, 1933, 193.
26.
League of Nations, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1938, 24, and International Studies Conference: Report by the General Rapporteur Professor J. B. Condliffe on the Meetings on Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace at the Eleventh Session of the Conference, Prague, May 23–27, 1938, XIth Session, Prague, 1938, Report by Professor Condliffe on the meetings, AG IICI-K-XI-22.
27.
Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 85–86 (1938), 5, and Société des Nations, ‘Au comité exécutif de la Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 85–86 (1938): 16–23, 16.
28.
League of Nations, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1938, 23, and International Studies Conference: Report on the 10th Meeting of the Executive Committee held in Paris, Saturday, January 15, 1938, AG 1-IICI-K-XI-10, UA. See also Bonnet to Kittredge, January 17, 1938, AG 1-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA. The total sum of $100,000 granted to the ISC by the Rockefeller Foundation for the years 1938 and 1939 was made up of two grants of $50,000 per annum. In addition, a grant of $25,000 was awarded to the ISC by the foundation in order to fund the work of a group of experts on Danubian problems.
29.
League of Nations, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1938, 23–24.
30.
International Studies Conference: Report on the 10th Meeting of the Executive Committee held in Paris, Saturday, January 15, 1938, AG 1-IICI-K-XI-10, UA.
31.
Rapport sur la XIème Réunion Administrative de la Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales tenue à Prague le 26 Mai, 1938 par le rapporteur Sir Alfred Zimmern, AG 1-IICI-K-XI-21, UA. For Condliffe’s appointment, see Bonnet’s letter of 27 November 1937, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales: Les politiques économiques et la paix, dossier général, du 1^er juilliet 1937 au 1^er juin 1938, AG 1-IICI-K-I-22.a. Condliffe’s appointment was confirmed at the meeting of the ISC’s executive committee on January 15. International Studies Conference, 11th Session, Prague, May 23–27, 1938: Agenda of the Administrative Meeting, AG 1-IICI-K-XI-15.a, UA.
32.
League of Nations, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1939, 17.
33.
International Studies Conference: Report by the General Rapporteur Professor J. B. Condliffe on the Meetings on Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace, AG 1-IICI-K-XI-22.
34.
Condliffe, Markets and the Problem of Peaceful Change, 5.
35.
Ibid., 5–7. Emphasis added.
36.
International Studies Conference: XIth Session, Prague, 1938: List of Participants, AG 1-IICI-K-XI-19, UA. See also ‘La Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales a tenu sa onzième session à Prague,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 89–90 (1938): 199–235, 235. In 1938, a plan was being entertained for the preparation of a new edition of the Répertoire international des centres de documentation politique which had been published by the IIIC on behalf of the ISC in 1931. According to Leo Gross, a revised edition was needed because the ISC wanted to ‘profit in particular from the considerable extension in the number of members of the Conference…since 1931,’ and ‘in order to extend the geographical range of…[the original]…list.’ See the circular sent by Leo Gross, 8 June 1938, concerning the ‘Revised Edition of “Centres of Reference for International Affairs”’. Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales, publications (préparation): Répetoire international des centres de documentation politique, nouvelle édition. 1938–1939, AG 1-IICI-K-II-2.c, UA
37.
Rapport sur la XIème réunion administratif de la Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales tenue à Prague, le 26 mai 1938, par le Rapporteur Sir Alfred Zimmern, AG 1-IICI-K-XI-21, UA.
38.
Barry Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 11.
39.
Tracey B. Kittredge to Henri Bonnet, 7 July 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b. See also Eric Voegelin to Henri Bonnet, 24 June 1938, in Jürgen Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, translations from the German by William Petropulus (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2009), 170–71. See also League of Nations, International Institute of International Co-operation, The International Studies Conference: Origins Functions, Organisation, 41.
40.
Gross to Bourquin, May 3, 1938, AG 1-IICI-K-I-18.q, UA.
41.
Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 9–10.
42.
Eric Voegelin to Tracey B. Kittredge, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 145–46.
43.
Ibid. A portion of the letter that Eric Voegelin sent to John B. Whitton is reproduced in Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 12n. See also Eric Voegelin to Malcolm W. Davis, 5 April 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 143–44.
44.
Eric Voegelin to Frederick A. Ogg, Head of the Political Science Department, University of Wisconsin, 28 May 1938, in Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 13. For mention of Voegelin’s work in connection with the ISC, see Eric Voegelin to Gottfried Harberler, 10 May 1938 and attached curriculum vitae, and Voegelin to Head of the Political Science Department, University of Wisconsin, May 24, 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 155–61, 162–65. Among the memoranda submitted to the ISC for the benefit of its 1937 session by the Austrian Coordinating Committee for International Studies were three memoranda produced by a ‘study group on ideological questions.’ International Studies Conference, Peaceful Change: Procedures, Population, Raw Materials, Colonies, 634.
45.
Kittredge to Bonnet, 7 July 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
46.
Voegelin to Ogg, 28 May 1938, in Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 14. The date on which Kittredge met with Voegelin is indicated by Voegelin in a letter he sent to Gottfried Harbeler which is dated May 15, 1938. See Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 161–62
47.
On the edict issued by the Austrian Ministry of Education, see Voegelin to Austrian Ministry of Eduction, 3 June 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 167.
48.
Kittredge to Bonnet, 7 July 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA. AG IICI-K-I-4.
49.
Eric Voegelin to Henri Bonnet, 24 June 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 170–71. Voegelin further stated in his letter to Henri Bonnet the following: ‘Professor Dopsch [the chairman of the committee] did not know anything about this letter [of dismissal], but was happy to remember that he had given order to dismiss me a few yours later’ (ibid., 171).
50.
Eric Voegelin to Leo Gross, n.d., 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 171–73. See also Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 17. Barry Cooper notes that Voegelin’s letter to Gross was written in early July.
51.
Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 18.
52.
Ibid., 16. See also Eric Voegelin to W. Y. Elliot, n.d., August 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 181–82.
53.
Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 18.
54.
Eric Voegelin to Arthur N. Holcombe, n.d., August 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 179.
55.
Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, 18. See also Voegelin to Gottfried Bermann-Fischer, August 22, 1938, and Voegelin to Elliot, n.d., August 1938, in Gebhardt, ed., The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 29, Selected Correspondence 1924–1949, 180, 182.
56.
Kittredge to Bonnet, 7 July 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
57.
Leo Gross to Tracey B. Kittredge, 25 July 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
58.
Kittredge to Bonnet, 7 July 1938, and Kittredge to Bonnet, 18 July 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
59.
Kittredge to Bonnet, July 18, 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
60.
Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle, L’Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle: 1925–1946 (Paris: Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle, 1946), 285, and Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 89–90 (1938): 199–235, 199-200, 219, See also XIth Session, Prague, 1938, Note on the Organisation of the Conference, AG IICI- K-XI-16 UA. On the partial mobilisation see Igor Lukes, ‘The Czechoslovak Partial Mobilization in May 1938: A Mystery (Almost) Solved,’ Journal of Contemporary History 31, no. 4 (1996): 699–701.
61.
Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle, Institut International de la Coopération Intellectuelle, 1925–1946, 283.
62.
Alfred E. Zimmern, preface to Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 1. Attending the conference on the university teaching of international relations in Prague were representatives from the following countries: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia and the United States.
63.
Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 6. See also Centre d’études de politique étrangère, Le Groupe d’études des sciences sociales, Les sciences sociales en France: Enseignement et recherche, préface de C. Bouglé (Paris: Paul Hartmann, 1937), 6–7.
64.
Edith E. Ware, ed., The Study of International Relations in the United States: Survey for 1934 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934), ix.
65.
Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 6. See also Edith E. Ware, ed., The Study of International Relations in the United States: Survey for 1937 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1938), and S. H. Bailey, International Studies in Modern Education (London: Oxford University Press, 1938), viii.
66.
Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 6. On the translation and publication of the French edition of International Studies in Modern Education, see Jiri F. Vranek to Tracey B. Kittredge, 17 May 1938, AG-IICI-K-I-4.b, UA.
67.
Célestin Bouglé, preface to Centre d’études de politique étrangère, Le Groupe d’études des sciences sociales, Les sciences sociales en France, 7.
68.
Bailey, International Studies in Modern Education, v–vi.
69.
See for example Emanuel Chalupný, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 33.
70.
Bohdan Winiarski, ‘International Policy as a Science of International Relations,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 61.
71.
Société des Nations, Organisation de la Coopération Intellectuelle, Comité exécutif: Point XIII de l’ordre du jour—Psychologie de la guerre, 28 mars 1938, La Psychologie de la guerre: Étude proposée par la British Medical Association, 1939–1940, AG 1-IICI-B-V-10, UA.
72.
Head of Publications, Geneva Research Centre, to Carl F. Remer, 23 February 1939, AG 1-IICI-B-V-10, UA.
73.
Robert Waelder, ‘L’Étiologie et l’évolution des Psychoses collectives,’ in L’esprit, l’éthique et la guerre: Lettres de Johann Bojer, J. Huizinga, Aldous Huxley, André Maurois and Robert Waelder (Paris: Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle, 1934). The first volume in the open letters series was the following: League of Nations, A League of Minds: An International Series of Open Letters 1 (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, 1933). This volume was published in French with the following title: Pour une société des esprits.
74.
Henri Bonnet, ‘La Société des Nations et la Coopération Intellectuelle,’ Journal of World History 10, no. 1 (1966): 198–209, 204. See also Waelder, ‘L’Étiologie et l’évolution des Psychoses collectives,’ 91.
75.
Head of Publications, Geneva Research Centre, to Remer, 23 February 1939, AG 1-IICI-B-V-10, UA.
76.
Leon Steinig to Henri Bonnet, 23 March 1939, AG 1-IICI-B-V-10, UA. On Steinig’s interest in the study see also Carl F. Remer to Henri Bonnet, 6 April 1939, and Carl F. Remer by H. (Hessell) Duncan Hall, 5 December 1938, AG 1-IICI-B-V-10, UA. Hessell Duncan Hall was a member of the Social Questions and Opium Trafficking Section of the LON Secretariat.
77.
H. (Hessell) Duncan Hall to Henri Bonnet and attached memorandum, 15 September 1939, AG 1-IICI-B-V-10, UA.
78.
Julio Escudero ‘The Necessity of the Study of International Relations,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 28-9, 31.
79.
Ibid., 29.
80.
Ibid., 28–9.
81.
Ibid., 29–30.
82.
Manuel Marion Sanchez, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 37–8.
83.
Mihai A. Antonesco, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 80–1. See also the following biographical descriptions: ‘Michel A. Antonescu, L.L.D. Assistant Professor of Public and Private International Law at the Bucharest Academy of Higher Commercial and Industrial Studies; Lecturer in Law at the Faculty of Law, University of Bucharest; Professor of International Law at the Higher School of Administrative Law; Barrister at the Court of Appeal Bucharest,’ Maurice Bourquin, ‘Biographical Notes on the Delegates and Participants at the Conferences of Paris and London, and on the Authors of Memoranda, Submitted in 1934 and 1935,’ in Bourquin, ed., Collective Security, 493; ‘Antonesco, Michel A. Lecturer in International Law University of Bucarest [sic], and Academy of Commercial Science,’ International Studies Conference, ‘Annex 3: List of Participants in the Session,’ in International Studies Conference, Peaceful Change: Procedures, Population, Raw Materials, Colonies, 621; and ‘Antoneso, Mihai (Rumanian), Lecturer in International Law University of Bucarest [sic] and Académie de Hautes Études Commeriales et Industrielles,’ ‘List of Participants in the Eleventh Session of the International Studies Conference,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 344. Wojciech Roszkowski and Jan Kofmans record that Mihai Antonescu was the author of the following work: ‘Organizarea păcii și a Societații Națiunilor (The establishment of a peaceful order and the League of Nations, 1929)’. They further record that following a coup in Romania in August 1944, Antonescu was arrested and spent a period of detention in the USSR. In May 1946, he was tried and found guilty of war-crimes. He was then ‘executed by firing squad in the garden of the Jilava prison, along with Marshal Antonescu’ in May 1946. Wojciech Roszkowski and Jan Kofman, ‘Mihai Antonescu,’ in Wojciech Roszkowski and Jan Kofman, Biographical Dictionary of Central and Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London ad New York: Routledge, 2015), 29–30. First published in 2008 by M. E. Sharpe.
84.
Antonesco, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations,’ 78–81.
85.
George Sopronie, ‘The Teaching of International Law in Connection with the Study of International Relations,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 63–4, and Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 346.
86.
Ibid., 64.
87.
Antonesco, ‘The University Teaching of International Relations,’ 80.
88.
‘Fourth Study Meeting,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 306.
89.
Ibid.
90.
Ibid.
91.
Ibid., 307.
92.
Ibid., 310.
93.
International Studies Conference: Report by the General Rapporteur Professor J. B. Condliffe on the Meetings on Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace, AG IICI-K-XI-22. John Bell Condliffe noted that at the conference in Prague there was ‘general agreement that previous conférences had suffered from a mass of unrelated and somewhat uneven papers presented and there was a general desire for more concentrated and uniform preparation as a basis for precise and effective round-table discussion’ (ibid.).
94.
League of Nations, International Studies Conference XIth Session: Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace—A Record of Meetings Held in Prague on May 25th and 26th, 1938 (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1938), 8, AG IICI K-X1-23, UA.
95.
John B. Whitton to Henri Bonnet, 22 April 1938, and John Bell Condliffe, draft of letter to Tracey Barrett Kittredge, 19 May 1938, AG 1-IICI-K-I-16.a, UA.
96.
International Studies Conference: Report by the General Rapporteur Professor J. B. Condliffe on the Meetings on Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace, AG IICI KXI-22, UA.
97.
League of Nations, International Studies Conference XIth Session: Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace—A Record of Meetings Held in Prague on May 25th and 26th, 1938, AG 1-IICI K-X1-23, UA.
98.
For the letter of Balbino Giuliano and for two letters by the Italian minister of foreign affairs Count Galeazzo Ciano concerning the fate of the International Institute of Educational Cinematography see Journal des Nations, janvier 14, 1938, Institut international du cinématographe éducatif, Rome, 1938–1940, AG 1-B-IX-17, UA. Note that Ciano was Mussolini’s son-in-law. See also Charles André, L’Organisation de la Intellectuelle (Rennes: Imprimerie Provinçale de l’Ouest, 1938), 148, and Hila Wehberg, ‘Fate of an International Film Institute,’ Public Opinion Quarterly 2, no. 3 (1938): 483–85, 485.
99.
André, L’Organisation de la Coopération Intellectuelle, 148.
100.
Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy, 4–3. See also Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini (London: Phoenix, 1994), 217.
101.
La Coopération internationale et la radiodiffusion educative, étude de Mr. Hartvig Frisch, March 23, 1938, Radiodiffusion dans l’intérêt de la paix, 1938, AG I IICI-E.X.3, UA.
102.
William Beveridge to Henri Bonnet, 11 January 1938, AG 1-E-X-3. The Convention on the Use of Radio in the Interest of Peace was opened for signature on September 23, 1936. See Société des Nations, ‘Entrée en vigeur de la convention internationale sur l’emploi de la radiodiffusion dans l’intérêt de paix,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 85–86 (1938): 37. In regard to the Sino-Japanese war, Alec T. Rixon noted that the Japanese ‘swamp the whole world with their broadcasting publicity’ while at the same time demolishing Chinese radio communications through aerial bombing and then drowning what remained of it by means of their interference station in Southern Manchuria. Alec T. Rixon, ‘Telecommunications of China with Foreign Countries,’ Public Opinion Quarterly 2, no. 3 (1938): 478–83, 483. On the Italian use of radio for propaganda purposes, see Taylor Cole, ‘The Italian Ministry of Popular Culture,’ Public Opinion Quarterly 2, no. 3 (1938): 424–34, 431–42.
103.
Leo Gross to John Bell Condliffe, 16 August 1939, Organisation materielle des Sessions de la Conférence, du 1^er juin 1939 au 1^er permanente septembre 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-25.b, UA.
104.
Fritz Berber to Henri Bonnet, 23 July 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-25.b, UA. See also ‘List of Participants in the Eleventh Session of the International Studies Conference,’ in Zimmern, ed., The University Teaching of International Relations, 346. Carl Brinkmann attended a meeting of the ISC’s Programme Committee held at the IIIC on November 4, 1938. See Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace, Report of the Meeting of the Programme Committee held at the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation on November 4, 1938, AG 1- K-XII-2a., UA.
105.
Fritz Berber to Henri Bonnet, 4 March 1939, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales: Comité exécutif à partir du 1^er septembre 1937 à décembre 1946, AG 1-IICI-K-I-2.
106.
Fassbender, ‘On Writing the History of International Law in the “Third Reich” and After,’ 500–1.
107.
Fritz Berber, 1939, quoted ibid., 501.
108.
Llewellyn Pfankuchen, review of Das Diktat von Versailles, ed., Fritz Berber, Journal of International Law 33, no. 44 (1939): 793–94, 793.
109.
Joachim von Ribbentrop, foreword to Das Diktat von Versailles: Entstehung, Inhalt, Zerfall, eine Darstellung in Dokumenten (Essen: Essener Verlagsantalt, 1939), iii.
110.
Pfankuchen, review of Das Diktat von Versailles, ed., Fritz Berber, 794.
111.
James Douglas-Hamilton, ‘Ribbentrop and War,’ Journal of Contemporary History 5, no. 4 (1970): 45–63, 45.
112.
Ibid. James Douglas-Hamilton record that the document prepared by Ernest Tennant ‘came into the hands of Mr Hird, the General Manger of the Bank of Scotland, who sent a copy to the Earl of Selkirk, the newly appointed Chief Intelligence Officer of RAF Fighter Command.’ He also notes that Tennant had earlier organised meetings between Ribbentrop and the British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin and that in the mid-1930s his reports were of ‘considerable interest’ to the British Secret Service (ibid.).
113.
Text of Ernest Tenant’s memorandum, 1939, ibid., 52.
114.
Ibid., 54.
115.
Ibid., 57.
116.
Ibid., 57.
117.
Note that the final act of the first Conference of the American National Committees of Intellectual Cooperation, which took place in Santiago from January 6–12, 1939, resolved that American National Committees should ‘collaborate most actively’ in the work of the ISC. ‘Comité exécutif et comité du programme de la Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 99–100 (1939): 783–87, 785–86.
118.
International Studies Conference, Twelfth Session, Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace: A Record of the Study Meetings Held in Bergen from August 26 to 29, 1939 (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, League of Nations, April 1940), vii, 9. IICI/9/23, UA.
119.
The Indian delegate, Sir Brojendra al Mitter, who was the advocate-general of India, had been due to reply on behalf of the conference to the formal address of welcome. Instead, he gave a brief address to the conference and then departed. Leo Gross to Dr. Edvard Hambro, 3 July 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-25.b, UA. On the original dates of the Bergen conference see Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 99–100 (1939), 783. For the actual dates of the conference at Bergen and the schedule of meetings held there see League of Nations, International Studies Conference, Twelfth Session, Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace: A Record of the Study Meetings Held in Bergen from August 26 to 29, 1939, 92, IICI/9/23, UA. As many of the conference participants were already present in Bergen on August 26, a programme committee meeting was held on the morning of that day in order to discuss modifications to the conference agenda.‘XII^e Session de la Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales,’ Informations sur la Coopération Intellectuelle, Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 1–2 (1939): 6–13, 6, and Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle, L’Institut Internationale de la Coopération Intellectuelle: 1925–1946, 288.
120.
Société des Nations, Institut International de la Coopération Intellectuelle, Conférence Permanente des Hautes Ḗtudes Internationales, XIIème Session, Bergen 1939—Les Politiques Économiques et la Paix: Discours du Rapporteur General, M. J. B. Condliffe, Professor of Commerce à l’Université de Londres, à la séance d’ouverture, le lundi, 28 août, 1939, Maison de Commerce et de Navigation, 2, AG 1-K-XII.13 UA. Due to the time constraints on the conference only the last two paragraphs of the opening speech that Condliffe had prepared and had intended to give in full at the Bergen conference in his capacity general rapporeur were delivered orally. International Studies Conference, Twelfth Session, Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace: A Record of the Study Meetings Held in Bergen from August 26 to 29, 1939, 93–5, IICI/9/23, UA.
121.
Société des Nations, Institut International de la Coopération Intellectuelle, Conférence Permanente des Hautes Ḗtudes Internationales, XIIème Session, Bergen 1939—Les Politiques Économiques et la Paix: Discours du Rapporteur, M. J. B. Condliffe, Professor of Commerce à l’Université de Londres, à la séance d’ouverture, le lundi, 28 août, Maison de Commerce et de Navigation, 5–6, AG 1-K-XII.13. UA.
122.
Ibid.
123.
Ibid., 6.
124.
Ibid.
125.
International Studies Conference, Twelfth Session, Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace: A Record of the Study Meetings Held in Bergen from August 26 to 29, 1939, 115, IICI/9/23, UA.
126.
Ibid., 64.
127.
Ibid., 50, 65, 69.
128.
Ibid., 219–20.
129.
Ibid., 58–59, 89, 217.
130.
J. B. Condliffe responding to comments on an address by Alexander Loveday, in Alexander Loveday, ‘The Economic and Financial Activities of the League,’ International Affairs 17, no. 6 (1938): 788–808, 808. For Condliffe’s self-description, see International Studies Conference, Twelfth Session, Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace: A Record of the Study Meetings Held in Bergen from August 26 to 29, 1939, 27, IICI/9/23, UA.
131.
International Studies Conference, Twelfth Session, Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace: A Record of the Study Meetings Held in Bergen from August 26 to 29, 1939, 58–9, IICI/9/23, UA.
132.
Michael A. Heilperin, International Monetary Organisation (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1939), 41–2.
133.
Ibid., 41.
134.
Ibid., 55.
135.
William E. Rappard, ‘Post-War Efforts for Freer Trade,’ Geneva Studies 9, no. 2 (Geneva: Geneva Research Centre, 1938), 66.
136.
Heilperin, International Monetary Organisation, 56.
137.
Heinrich Hunke, 1938, quoted in Louis Baudin, Free Trade and Peace (Paris: International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1939), 57n.
138.
Baudin, Free Trade and Peace, 57n.
139.
Ibid., 57.
140.
Ibid., 30–3, 77–8.
141.
Lionel Robbins, Economic Planning and International Order (London: Macmillan, 1937), 240–42. See also Baudin, Free Trade and Peace, 32.
142.
The Study Programme of the International Studies Conference, Conférence permanente des hautes études internatonales: Rapporteur général, 1939–1941, Rapporteur générale, 1939-1941, M. Pitman B. Potter, octobre 1939, 1939–1941, 1945–1947, AG 1-IICI-K-I-24, UA.
143.
Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle, L’Institut Internationale de la Coopération Intellectuelle: 1925–1946, 293–94. Conference members agreed that in the event of war they would stay in touch with each other and the conference secretariat. International Studies Conference: Suggested Study Programme, October–November, 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-24, UA. Japanese members of the ISC proposed the topic of ‘Race as a factor in the construction of a new world order’ and ‘Colonies Raw Materials and Peace’. For these and other suggested topics see ‘Propositions pour le sujet d’étude de la Conférence permanente des hautes études internatonales pour la période 1939–1941,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 101–102 (1939): 933–37.
144.
J. B. Condliffe to Leo Gross, 9 November 1939, Organisation materielle de la XII^e Session de la Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales (CPHÉI), 1^er septembre 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-25.c, UA. See also Francis P. Miller to Bonnet, 12 December 1939, Conférence permanente des hautes études internatonales: Les politiques économiques et la paix, dossier générale, du 1^er mai 1939 à 1945, AG 1-IICI-K-I-22.c. The memoranda submitted to the conference by invited experts were published by the IIIC. Two of these memoranda, namely, Free Trade and Peace by Louis Baudin and World Trading Systems: A Study of British and American Commercial Policies by Henry J. Tasca, both of which were published by the IIIC in 1939, were very favourably reviewed in the following review article: John Donaldson, review of Free Trade and Peace by Louis Baudin, and John Donaldson, review of World Trading Systems by Henry J. Tasca, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 210, no. 1 (1940): 146–47.
145.
Gross to Condliffe, 8 December 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-25.c, UA.
146.
Moresco, Colonial Questions and Peace, 13.
147.
Ibid., 13.
148.
Ibid., 14.
149.
‘Note,’ Informations sur la Coopération Intellectuelle (a), nos. 1–2 (1939): 1–2, and Bonnet to Hall, October 14, 1939, AG 1-IICI-B-V-10, UA.
150.
Pitman B. Potter to Henri Bonnet, 4 and 12 October 1939, Geneva Research Centre, à parter du 1^er juin 1939, AG 1ICI—K-I-16.b. For Pitman B. Potter’s background, see Potter, ‘League Publicity: Cause or Effect of League Failure,’ 399.
151.
Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle, L’Institut Internationale de la Coopération Intellectuelle: 1925–1946, 294. For Potter’s programme of study, see International Studies Conference: Suggested Study Programme, November, 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-24, UA.
152.
Memorandum of the General Reporter For Program Committee Meeting, December 21–22, 1939. Conférence permanente des hautes études, AG 1-IICI-K-I-24, UA.
153.
‘Propositions de programme d’étude de la Conférence part le Prof. Pitman B. Potter,’ Informations sur la Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 1–2 (1939): 14–15.
154.
Potter to Bonnet, 14 December 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-24, UA. See also New Commonwealth Institute to International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, September 1939, Rapprochement international: Généralités, 1927–1944, AG 1-IICI-B-V-4.
155.
For the membership of the Commission to Study the Organisation of Peace see Charles DeBenedetti, ‘James T. Shotwell and the Science of International Politics,’ Political Science Quarterly 89, no. 2 (1974): 379–95, 392, and Smith Simpson, ‘The Commission to Study the Organization of Peace,’ American Political Science Review 35, no. 2 (1941): 317–24, 318–19. The Church Peace Union was founded by Dale Carnegie in 1914. The American Union for Concerted Peace Efforts was formed in New York on March 30, 1939. It had three aims: ‘to oppose aggression, to promote economic justice between nations and to develop adequate peace machinery.’ Shotwell was one of its honorary vice-presidents. The World Citizens Association was founded in Chicago 1939. See Simpson, ‘The Commission to Study the Organization of Peace,’ 318n–19n.
156.
Pamphlet issued by the Commission to Study the Organisation of Peace, 1939, quoted in Simpson, ‘The Commission to Study the Organization of Peace,’ 318.
157.
Ibid., 320. The dates of the broadcasts on behalf of the Commission to Study the Organisation of Peace subsequent to the first broadcast were as follows: February 3, 10, 17, 24; March 2, 9, 16, 23, 30; April 6, 13, 20, 27 and May 11. There was another broadcast on November 9, 1940.
158.
Ibid., and James T. Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 210, no. 1 (1940): 19–23, 19.
159.
Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ 21.
160.
Ibid., and DeBenedetti, ‘James T. Shotwell and the Science of International Politics,’ 391.
161.
DeBenedetti, ‘James T. Shotwell and the Science of International Politics,’ 392.
162.
Ibid.
163.
Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ 22–23.
164.
Ibid., 23.
165.
Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ 23. Harold Josepson records that Shotwell was sympathetic to the Chinese claims in relation extra-territoriality and at the IPR’s conference in Kyoto in 1929, had sought to find a compromise between China’s insistence that extraterritoriality violated its sovereignty and the American, British and French unwillingness to accept its ‘unilateral termination’. In regard to the question of Manchuria, while ‘admitting the validity of some of the Japanese claims,’ Shotwell ‘thoroughly abhorred the method chosen’. At first, he had accepted the Hoover-Stimson Policy of ‘watchful-waiting in the hope that more liberal forces in Tokyo would regain control of the government’. However, in December of 1931, recognising that this policy would not work, Shotwell called for the United States to ‘strongly assert the validity of the Kellogg Pact and the Nine-Power Treaty.’ Harold Josepson, James T. Shotwell and the Rise of Internationalism in America (New Jersey: Associated University Press, 1975), 182, 193.
166.
Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ 23. For Shotwell’s advisory role, see DeBenedetti, ‘James T. Shotwell and the Science of International Politics,’ 392.
167.
Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ 23.
168.
League of Nations, The Problem of Nutrition, vol. 2, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition (Geneva: League of Nations, 1936), 4.
169.
League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 4. See also League of Nations, League of Nations Health Organisation: Report to the Council on the Work of the Twenty-Second Session of the Health Committee (Geneva: League of Nations, October 1935), 4. C. 426. M. 218.
170.
Morley, The Society of Nations, 614, and League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 4. See also League of Nations, League of Nations Health Organisation: Report to the Council on the Work of the Twenty-Second Session of the Health Committee 7; R. Burri, ‘The Milk Supply of North American Cities,’ Quarterly Bulletin of the Health Organisation 1, no. 1 (1932); G. S. Wilson, ‘The System of Grading Milk in the United States of American,’ Quarterly Bulletin of the Health Organisation 1, no. 4 (1932); and J. Parisot, P. Melnotte, and L. Fernier, ‘Milk Hygiene in the Department of Meurthe-et-Moselle,’ Quarterly Bulletin of the Health Organisation 3, no. 4 (1934).
171.
League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 4.
172.
Ibid.
173.
Quarterly Bulletin of the Health Organisation 1, no. 3 (1932), and Quarterly Bulletin of the Health Organisation 2, no. 1 (1933).
174.
League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 6. See also Étienne Burnet and Wallace Ruddell Aykroyd, ‘Nutrition and Public Health,’ Quarterly Bulletin of the Health Organisation 4, no. 2: 323–474.
175.
League of Nations, League of Nations Health Organisation: Report to the Council on the Work of the Twenty-Second Session of the Health Committee, 4; League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 5; League of Nations, The Problem of Nutrition, vol. 1, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition (Geneva: League of Nations, 1936), 7; League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health Agriculture and Economic Policy (Geneva: League of Nations, 1937), 12; and League of Nations, League of Nations Health Organisation: Report to the Council on the Work of the Twenty-Fifth Session of the Health Committee Geneva, April 26th–May 1st (Geneva: League of Nations, 1937), Official No. G. 219. M. I59 e 1937.111, 12.
176.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 164–66, and John B. O’Brien, ‘F. L. McDougall and the Origins of the FAO,’ Australian Journal of Politics and History 46, no. 2 (2000): 164–74, 170. John B. O’Brien points out that The Agricultural and the Health Problems ’drew on the work of Dr. Hazel Stibling of the United States Health Department of Agriculture, Dr. Rajchmann [Ludwik Rajchmann], director of the health section of the League of Nations, Dr. Burnet and Dr. Aykroyd in Australia and most important of all, on his colleague from the Empire Marketing Board John Boyd Orr of the Rowett Institute in Aberdeen and author of the book Food, Health and Income [1936].’ O’Brien, ‘F. L. McDougall and the Origins of the FAO,’ 169-70.
177.
Wallace Ruddell Ackroyd, 1968, quoted in R. Passmore, ‘Obituary Notice: Wallace Ruddell Aykroyd,’ British Journal of Nutrition 43, no. 2 (1980): 245–50, 246.
178.
F. L. McDougall, 1951, quoted in O’Brien, ‘F.L. McDougall and the Origins of the FAO,’ 167. See also Passmore, ‘Obituary Notice: Wallace Ruddell Aykroyd,’ 246.
179.
Passmore, ‘Obituary Notice: Wallace Ruddell Aykroyd,’ 246.
180.
F. L. McDougall, 1940, quoted in O’Brien, ‘F. L. McDougall and the Origins of the FAO,’ 167.
181.
F. L. McDougall, 1934, quoted in Way, A New Idea Each Day, 162.
182.
O’Brien, ‘F. L. McDougall and the Origins of the FAO,’ 164.
183.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 166.
184.
Passmore, ‘Obituary Notice: Wallace Ruddell Aykroyd,’ 246. See also Way, A New Idea Each Day, 266.
185.
League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 7.
186.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 167.
187.
League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 8. For Grace Abbot’s interest in the McDougall memorandum, see Way, A New Idea Each Day, 166–67.
188.
League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 8. Pursuant to the International Labour Conference’s resolution, the International Labour Office in May 1936 published a general report under the heading of ‘Workers Nutrition and Social Policy.’ The Mixed Committee found the report to be of ‘the greatest value.’ League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health Agriculture and Economic Policy, 12–23.
189.
Passmore, ‘Obituary Notice: Wallace Ruddell Aykroyd,’ 246.
190.
LON, special supplement, OJ, no. 138 (1935), 42.
191.
League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 7.
192.
Ibid., 5. See also Loveday, ‘The Economic and Financial Activities of the League,’ 796.
193.
League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 7, and Way, A New Idea Each, 168.
194.
League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 7.
195.
League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, 6.
196.
League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 7, and League of Nations, League of Nations Health Organisation: Report to the Council on the Work of the Twenty-Fifth Session of the Health Committee, 12.
197.
League of Nations, League of Nations Health Organisation: Report to the Council on the Work of the Twenty-Fifth Session of the Health Committee, 12, and League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 8–10.
198.
League of Nations, League of Nations Health Organisation: Report to the Council on the Work of the Twenty-Fifth Session of the Health Committee, 13, and ‘Physiological Bases of Nutrition,’ The Lancet 226, no. 5860 (1935): 1434–437.
199.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 190.
200.
League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 9–10; League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy, 9–10, and Way, A New Idea Each Day, 171.
201.
League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy, 9–10.
202.
For the international outlook of Giuseppe De Michelis, see Giuseppe De Michelis, World Reorganisation on Corporative Lines (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1935), 171-4. See also Giuseppe De Michelis, La coporazione nel mundo (Milan: Bompian, 1934), and Giussepe De Michelis, La corporation dans le monde (Paris: Éditions Denoël et Steele, 1935). For nuanced portrait of Giuseppe De Michelis, see Jens Steffek, ‘Fascist Internationalism,’ Millennium 44, no. 1 (2015): 3-22. See also League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy, 9–10.
203.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 171–72.
204.
Ibid., 172.
205.
Ibid and League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy, 9.
206.
League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 5, and League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy, 14, 21.
207.
Loveday, ‘The Economic and Financial Activities of the League,’ 796.
208.
League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy, 12, 14, and League of Nations, Interim Report of the Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition, 8. See also League of Nations, Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition, i. The interim report noted that as of June 24, the fourth volume of the report was still in preparation.
209.
League of Nations, Nutrition: Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy, 15.
210.
Ibid., 1.
211.
Loveday, ‘The Economic and Financial Activities of the League,’ 796.
212.
F. P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), 754–55. Frank P. Walters points out that ‘[w]hen Bruce laid his plan before the Assembly, nutrition committees existed in only three States; four years later, there were thirty’ (ibid., 755).
213.
Loveday, ‘The Economic and Financial Activities of the League,’ 795–96.
214.
Ibid., 796.
215.
Ibid., 795–97.
216.
Ibid., 796.
217.
‘During the past few years, the Economic and Financial Organisation of the League has tended to concern itself less exclusively with problems of international commercial relations in the strict sense and to devote increased attention to the study of national economic problems common to a large number of countries.’ League of Nations, Economic and Financial Questions: Report submitted by the Second Committee to the Assembly, September 26, 1938, 4–6, 10A/35282/1778 A.64.1938.IIB, League of Nations Archives, Geneva.
218.
F. L. McDougall, ‘Food and Welfare,’ Geneva Special Studies 9, no. 5 (Geneva: Geneva Research Centre, 1938), and Marie Louise Berg, secretary of the Geneva Research Centre, to Gross, February 14, 1939, AG 1ICI—K-I-16.b. See also Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 99–100 (1939): 786–87.
219.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 177. See also ‘Standard of Living: Ways to Economic Appeasement,’ Times, September 18, 1937.
220.
F. L. McDougall, 1936, quoted in Way, A New Idea Each Day, 199.
221.
‘Economic Appeasement,’ Times, September 22, 1937. See also Way, A New Idea Each Day, 202.
222.
LON, special supplement, OJ, no. 169 (1937), 74–5.
223.
Ibid., 74. Rebecca Haynes notes that Victor Anontescu’s public speeches concealed ‘a change in foreign policy which took place during his ministry. The breakdown of the French-backed collective security system and the re-emergence of Germany as an assertive Great Power by the mid-1930s necessitated a re-alignment of Romanian foreign policy. Although there was no formal change of alliances, the Antonescu ministry inaugurated a shift towards a position of informal neutrality between the Great Powers and a corresponding diminution of Romania’s foreign-policy obligations.’ Rebecca Haynes, ‘Victor Antonescu and Romania’s Foreign Policy Readjustment, September 1936 to December 1937,’ in Romanian Policy Towards Germany, 1936–40 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 19, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-59818-8_2.
224.
LON, special supplement, OJ, no. 169 (1937), 75.
225.
Ibid., 75–6.
226.
Ibid., 76.
227.
Ibid.
228.
Ibid.
229.
Ibid.
230.
Ibid., 76–7.
231.
Ibid., 77.
232.
Ibid., 77.
233.
Ibid., 78.
234.
Ibid., 79.
235.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 202. Way notes that on the recommendation of McDougall, the memorandum was prepared by Professor Noel Hall and, according to Way, it reflected in many instances the thinking of the former on the subject.
236.
Walters, A History of the League of Nations, 758.
237.
Ibid., 758–59.
238.
Ibid., 759.
239.
Ibid., 759–60.
240.
Ibid., 760.
241.
Ibid.
242.
Cordell Hull, 1939, quoted ibid.
243.
Walters, A History of the League of Nations, 761.
244.
Way, A New Idea Each Day, 204.
245.
Walters, A History of the League of Nations, 761. Walters described Rist as France’s ‘foremost economist’ and Bourquin as ‘a Belgian delegate of noted ability.’ In addition to Bruce, Bourquin and Rist, the committee included Harold Butler, ‘who had recently handed over to John Winant the headship of the International Labour Office; [Carl J.] Hambro, President of the Norwegian Parliament [and chair of the Christian Michelsen Institute of Science and Intellectual Liberty];...[and] Francisco Tudela of Peru, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, whose moderation and public spirit had won all hearts in Geneva’ (ibid.). See also Way, A New Idea Each Day, 202, 204, and Martin D. Dubin, ‘Toward the Bruce Report: The Economic and Social Programs of the League of Nations in the Avenol Years,’ in The League of Nations in Retrospect: Proceedings of the Symposium Organised by the United Nations Library and the Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, 6–9 November, 1980 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1983), 57. Martin D. Dubin points out that Kyriakos Varvaressos, the former Greek minister for finance and deputy-governor of the Bank of Greece was also a member of the Bruce Committee. Dubin notes that Avenol ‘properly is regarded as the father of the Bruce Report’ because of his sponsorship of it and that it was ‘the long-deferred product of discussions initiated by senior officials of the League of Nations Secretariat desiring to improve the organisation’s role in economic diplomacy after the failure of the London Monetary and Economic Conference in July 1933’ (ibid., 63).
246.
Dubin, ‘Toward the Bruce Report: The Economic and Social Programs of the League of Nations in the Avenol Years,’ 59. Dubin notes that in late July, 1939, Avenol ‘received a cautionary warning Royall Tyler, an American Secretariat member, warning that any desire to recruit the United States [to the proposed new agency] had better remain hidden….A similar message had come earlier from Sweetser. Perhaps it was this sensitivity that motived [Avenol’s deputy] Sean Lester to indicate on July 19 that he did not think that the Bruce Committee would take action that might embarrass the United States….Americans serving in League bodies and some U.S. officials had encouraged Secretariat members to believe the U.S. might take a more active part if an autonomous organization existed. When the chips were down the U.S. would not join thee Central Committee’ (ibid., 58, 63–64).
247.
League of Nations, Special Committee on the Development of International Cooperation in Economic and Social Affairs, The Development of International Co-operation in Economic and Social Affairs: Report of the Special Committee (Geneva: League of Nations, 1939), 6.
248.
Ibid.
249.
Report of the Secretary General, December 1939, quoted in League of Nations: Economic and Financial Committees, Report to the Council on the Work of the Joint Session London, April 27th–May 1st, 1942, Princeton, August 7th–8th, 1942, 10-1, 10A/41803/1778 RS 384 C.52. M.52.1942.IIA, Geneva, August, 31, 1942, Archives of the League of Nations.
250.
League of Nations: Economic and Financial Committees, Report to the Council on the Work of the Joint Session London, April 27th–May 1st, 1942, Princeton, August 7th–8th, 1942, 11.
251.
Ibid. Loveday observed on December 16 that ‘the Bruce reforms passed the Assembly “with the greatest ease”’ Dubin, ‘Toward the Bruce Report: The Economic and Social Programs of the League of Nations in the Avenol Years,’ 61.
252.
Ibid., 3.
253.
Dubin, ‘Toward the Bruce Report: The Economic and Social Programs of the League of Nations in the Avenol Years,’ 59. Dubin makes the important point that the Bruce Report was ‘not an instrument for appeasement. It contained a proposal for a Central Committee for Economic and Social Questions which would have been dominated by the British and French, as was the League’s Assembly which was to retain control over the Central Committee’s budget. Moreover, a prime purpose of this new agency was to promote the very kind of open international system the Germans and Italians had rejected. Even “economic appeasement” as proposed by Bruce had as its purpose expanding international trade and inducing Hitler and Mussolini to abandon autarchic policies. Finally, neither Loveday nor Avenol, thought that the aggressors would cooperate’ (ibid., 63).
254.
356 Parl. Deb., H. C. (5th series), January 17, 1940, 104.
255.
Dubin, ‘Toward the Bruce Report: The Economic and Social Programs of the League of Nations in the Avenol Years,’ 63.
256.
Ibid. Walters points out that the Central Committee for Economic and Social Questions, ‘still-born, as it seemed, in 1939, came to life as the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.’ Walters, A History of the League of Nations, 762.
257.
League of Nations: Economic and Financial Committees, Report to the Council on the Work of the Joint Session London, April 27th–May 1st, 1942, Princeton, August 7th–8th, 1942, 12.
258.
Patricia Clavin and Jens-Wilhelm Wessels, ‘Transnationalism and the League of Nations: Understanding the Work of Its Economic and Financial Organisation,’ Contemporary European History 14, no. 4 (2005): 465–92, 475, 475n-76n.
259.
League of Nations, Report of the Work of the League 1941–1942, 1942, quoted in League of Nations: Economic and Financial Committees, Report to the Council on the Work of the Joint Session London, April 27th–May 1st, 1942. Princeton, August 7th–8th, 1942, 14.
260.
Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, v.
261.
Ibid.
262.
‘The Memoirs of William L. Holland,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 21.
263.
Akami, Internationalizing the Pacific, 219–20, and Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, v.
264.
‘The Memoirs of William L. Holland,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 22.
265.
IPR Inquiry, 1939, ‘Appendix 5: Organization of the Study Meeting, the Inquiry and the Research Program,’ in Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, 287–88.
266.
‘The Memoirs of William L. Holland,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 22.
267.
Ibid., 21.
268.
‘Appendix 3: John B. Condliffe’s Reminiscences,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 469. See also ‘Memoirs of William L. Holland,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 22, and ‘Appendix 5: Organization of the Study Meeting, the Inquiry and the Research Program,’ in Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, 289.
269.
Ibid. For the protest of Takagi Yasaka, see ‘Appendix Two: Holland-Hooper Interviews,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 254.
270.
‘Appendix Three: John B. Condliffe’s Reminiscences,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 469.
271.
Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, v–vi
272.
Ibid., vi. See also Akami, Internationalizing the Pacific, 219.
273.
‘Memoirs of William L. Holland,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 24.
274.
Edward C. Carter to the national secretaries of the IPR, 5 September 1939, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales, Institutions internationales: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1935–1940, AG 1-IICI-K-V-5, UA. See also Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, v.
275.
Carter to the national secretaries of the IPR, 5 September 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-V-5, UA.
276.
Ibid.
277.
Edward C. Carter to the members of the Pacific Council; to the members of the International Research Committee; to the national secretaries of the IPR; and to the members of the IPR Study Meeting, October 9, 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-V-5, UA.
278.
Ibid.
279.
Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, v.
280.
Ibid., 273.
281.
Ibid., vi.
282.
Carter to IPR members, September 19, 1939, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales, Institutions nationales. Institute of Pacific Relations, Honolulu, 1935–1940, AG 1-IICI-K-V-5; Revised Agenda for I.P.R. Study Meeting, August 28, 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-V-5, and Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, v, 288. The Inquiry reports ‘constituted the greater part of the Meeting’s documentation and took the place, in all but a few instances, of the data papers normally supplied to the conferences by the National Council.’
283.
Edward C. Carter to members of the IPR, September 19, 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-V-5, UA.
284.
‘Memoirs of William L. Holland,’ in Hooper, ed., Remembering the Institute of Pacific Relations, 24.
285.
Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, 284–86.
286.
Ibid., 27.
287.
Ibid., 28.
288.
Ibid., 40.
289.
Ibid.
290.
Ibid.
291.
Ibid., 76.
292.
Ibid., 77.
293.
Ibid.
294.
Ibid.
295.
Ibid.
296.
Ibid.
297.
Ibid.
298.
‘Appendix 4: Round Table Discussion Syllabus,’ ibid., 283.
299.
Ibid.
300.
Ibid.
301.
Ibid.
302.
Ibid.
303.
Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, 1–2. For Mitchell’s new role, see ‘Appendix 1: Study Meeting Membership and Committees,’ ibid., 274.
304.
Ibid., 2.
305.
Ibid.
306.
Ibid.
307.
Ibid., 2, 5.
308.
Ibid., 3.
309.
Ibid.
310.
Ibid., 4–5.
311.
Ibid., 4.
312.
Ibid. See also ‘Resignation of Japanese Cabinet: New Government Expected to Have Pro-Axis Tinge,’ Singleton Argus, July 17, 1940; and H. O. Thompson, ‘Japan Swings to Axis Tie,’ Madera Tribune, July 16, 1940.
313.
Mitchell and Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific, 1939, 4–5. See also Singleton (NSW) Argus, July 17, 1940; and Madera Tribune, July 16, 1940.
314.
Ibid., 5.
315.
Ibid., 5–6.
316.
Ibid., 6.
317.
Ibid.
318.
Peter Wilson claims that ‘although the work is generally considered to have had a devastating effect on the “utopian” thinking of the inter-war period, the “utopians” themselves did not feel particularly devastated’ by Carr’s critique. Peter Wilson, ‘The Myth of the “First Great Debate”,’ in ‘The Eight Year Crisis’ 1919–1999,’ Tim Dunne, Michael Cox, and Ken Booth, eds., special issue, Review of International Studies 24 (December 1998):1–15, 6.
319.
Lucian M. Ashworth, ‘Did the Realist-Idealist Great Debate Really Happen? A Revisionist History of International Relations,’ International Relations 16, no. 1 (2002): 33–51, 42. Ashworth records that the Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, International Conciliation, Journal of Politics and Political Science Quarterly did not print reviews of the book.
320.
Hans Kohn, review of Frieden und Abendland, by Ernst Ferger; The Twenty Years’ Crisis 1919–1939, by Edward Hallett Carr; and Modern Political Doctrines, by Alfred Zimmern, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 210, no. 1 (1940): 152–53.
321.
Ibid., 152–53.
322.
Ibid., 153.
323.
Madariaga, ‘Gilbert Murray and the League,’ 177.
324.
Frank M. Russell, Theories of International Relations (New York: Appleton Century Crofts, 1937), 442.
325.
Ibid., 443.
326.
Ibid., 445n.
327.
‘Addresses Delivered at the Inaugural Meeting,’ in Bourquin, ed., Collective Security, 36. For Austen Chamberlain’s view of the League as a ‘moral force,’ see also Birn, ‘The League of Nations and Collective Security,’ 145.
328.
Coppola, ‘The Idea of Collective Security,’ 145–46.
329.
Ibid., 147. While one may be tempted to liken Coppola’s views to twentieth century realism, they are more properly described, as Ashworth insists, as a ‘20th-century continuation of Social Darwinism’ in their representation of ‘war and state conflict as a way of maintaining the strength and vitality of civilization.’ Ashworth, ‘Did the Realist Debate Really Happen?’ 46.
330.
Coppola, ‘The Idea of Collective Security,’ 146.
331.
‘Discussion: Prevention of War,’ in Bourquin, ed., Collective Security, 269–71. See also Chalmers Wright, Population and Peace, 5.
332.
‘Address by Mr. Allan W. Dulles,’ in Bourquin, ed., Collective Security, 462.
333.
Toynbee, ‘Peaceful Change or War?,’ 27.
334.
Salter, 1935, quoted in Toynbee, ‘Peaceful Change or War?,’ 50-1. See also Antola, ‘Theories of Peaceful Change: An Excursion to the Study of Change in International Relations in the 1930s,’ 240.
335.
Birn, ‘The League of Nations Union and Collective Security,’ 155–56.
336.
Ibid., 143, 145.
337.
Ibid., 143.
338.
Ibid., 155.
339.
Ibid.
340.
Madariaga, ‘Gilbert Murray and the League,’ 183.
341.
Birn, ‘The League of Nations Union and Collective Security,’ 156. ‘M. Hodža’s Government in Czechoslovakia resigned after accepting the terms proposed [by the French and British governments], and was succeeded by a new one under General Sirovy, which, however, declared itself bound by the decision of its predecessor....[E]xcept for the Czechoslovak State, whose sacrifice was consummated by the resignation of her President, Dr. Beneš, all the parties [to the Munich Agreement] had solid grounds for satisfaction.’ Gathorne-Hardy, A Short History of International Affairs 1919–1939, 472, 475.
342.
General Council of the LNU, 1938, quoted in Birn, ‘The League of Nations Union and Collective Security,’ 157.
343.
Birn, ‘The League of Nations Union and Collective Security,’ 156–57.
344.
Ibid., 146, 154. The General Council of the LNU in June 1938 called on the executive committee to consider a motion calling on the Government ‘to enter into negotiations with the German Government with a view to a general settlement of all grievances, and especially the colonial question, to the satisfaction of all concerned.’ General Council of the LNU, 1938, quoted ibid., 156.
345.
LNU Executive Committee, 1938, quoted in Birn, ‘The League of Nations Union and Collective Security,’ 154. Birn notes that in 1938 the LNU ‘kept up a steady broadside against the Government’ with the LNU’s monthly journal Headway listing various ‘promises Hitler had broken in the past’ and predicting he ‘would run true to form in the future.’ He adds that Churchill ‘used the pages of Headway to attack the Munich agreements and plead for support for the League and the Union’ and that from October 1938 the journal became a ‘“focus” of opposition to Chamberlain’s policies’ (ibid.).
346.
LNU Executive Committee, 1938, quoted in Birn, 154.
347.
Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis 1919–1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1939), 282.
348.
Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis 1919–1939, 278.
349.
Ibid., 265.
350.
Ibid., 282.
351.
Ibid., 264-65.
352.
Ibid., 272.
353.
Donald Cameron Watt, foreword to Bosco and Navari, Chatham House and British Foreign Policy 1919–1945, iii.
354.
Toynbee, 1938, quoted in McNeill, Arnold Toynbee: Life, 173.
355.
Toynbee, n.d., quoted in McNeill, Arnold Toynbee: Life, 173. McNeill notes that in a paper entitled ‘After Munich’ and dated November 18, 1938, Toynbee expressed pessimism about the outcome of Munich. He records that Toynbee argued therein that the ‘principle of national self-determination in Europe was “bound to produce a Mitteleuropa under German hegemony.”’ McNeill adds that Toynbee also claimed in this paper that ‘[f]urther resistance to Germany…had become impossible’. Arnold J. Toynbee, 1938, quoted in McNeill, Arnold Toynbee: Life, 174. McNeil records that these saw G. M. Gathorne-Hardy ‘assigned the task of informing Toynbee that for now at least Chatham House would not publish his paper, lest it become “a most dangerous encouragement to Hitler.”’ McNeill, Arnold Toynbee: Life, 174. For the censure of Toynbee’s paper see also Crozier, ‘Chatham House and Appeasement,’ 234–35.
356.
Christopher Brewin observes that Carr and Toynbee had ‘much in common’ both politically and intellectually. Christopher Brewin, ‘Arnold Toynbee and Chatham House,’ in Bosco and Navari, eds., Chatham House and British Foreign Policy 1919–1945, 156.
357.
Quincy Wright, ‘The Munich Settlement and International Law,’ American Journal of International Law 33, no. 1 (1939): 12–32, 13.
358.
Ibid.
359.
Ibid., 31. Wright further stated that the statesmen at Munich ‘thus duplicated the error of the statesmen at Versailles twenty years earlier. The Versailles settlement may not have been seriously unjust in substance, but it eventually succumbed because it had been achieved by procedures of dictation which did not provide assurances that it was just. Germany’s resentment at the treaty was mobilized less against the terms of the treaty than against its dictated origin’ (ibid., 31–32).
360.
Leonard Woolf, ‘Utopia and Reality,’ Political Quarterly 11, no. 2 (1940): 167–82, 173–74.
361.
Leonard Woolf, review of Survey of International Affairs, 1934, by Arnold J. Toynbee, assisted by V. M. Boulton; The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918–1935, by Alfred Zimmern; International Law, by J. Oppenheim; and The Anti-Drug Campaign, by S. H. Bailey, Political Quarterly 7, no. 2 (1936): 288–91, 289–90.
362.
Woolf, ‘Utopia and Reality,’ 172–74.
363.
Ibid., 174.
364.
Kohn, review of Frieden und Abendland by Ernst Ferger; The Twenty Years’ Crisis 1919–1939 by Edward Hallett Carr; and Modern Political Doctrines by Alfred Zimmern, 153. In regard to Neville Chamberlain’s policy Murray wrote in a letter on April 14, 1938: ‘I am profoundly shocked at the way he absolutely ignores the moral element in politics. Germany and Italy break their treaties and announce their intention to make war whenever they like, and Chamberlain treats this as a mere difference of policy, morally indifferent, and claims that we should be equal friends with those who keep the law and those who break it; and when we suggest that the nations which mean to abide by the covenants should stand together and support one another diplomatically, he says that is dividing Europe into two camps.’ Madariaga, ‘Gilbert Murray and the League,’ 183.
365.
‘List of Participants’ in Bourquin, ed., Peaceful Change, 622.
366.
Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 226–28, 267.
367.
Kohn, Review of Frieden und Abendland, by Ernst Ferger; The Twenty Years’ Crisis 1919–1939, by Edward Hallett Carr; and Modern Political Doctrines, by Alfred Zimmern, 153. For the dates between which Zimmern delivered his on spiritual values and world affairs, see his preface to Alfred Zimmern, Spiritual Values and World Affairs (London: Oxford University Press, 1939).
368.
Kohn, Review: Frieden und Abendland by Ernst Ferger; The Twenty Years’ Crisis 1919–1939 by Edward Hallett Carr; Modern Political Doctrines by Alfred Zimmern, 153.
369.
Zimmern, Spiritual Values and World Affairs, 117–19.
370.
Zimmern, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 176, 418, 485.
371.
Ibid., 210, 424; and Zimmern, Spiritual Values and World Affairs, 119.
372.
Zimmern, Spiritual Values and World Affairs, 84–5, 105.
373.
Ibid., 87–89.
374.
Ibid., 98–99.
375.
Ibid., 105–6.
376.
Wood, Peaceful Change and the Colonial Problem, 141.
377.
Zimmern, Spiritual Values and World Affairs, 172–74.
378.
Ibid., 175–76.
379.
Kohn, Review: Frieden und Abendland, by Ernst Ferger; The Twenty Years Crisis 1919–1939, by Edward Hallett Carr; and Modern Political Doctrines, by Alfred Zimmern, 153.
380.
Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, ‘Peace Through International Co-operation,’ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 210, no. 1 (1940): 57–65, 61.
381.
Simpson, ‘The Commission to Study the Organization of Peace,’ 317–18.
382.
Frederick L. Schumann ‘War, Peace and the Balance of Power,’ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 210, no. 1 (1940): 73–81, 74.
383.
Ibid., 77–78.
384.
Ibid., 77.
385.
Ibid., 77–78.
386.
Ibid., 76.
387.
Anatola, ‘Theories of Peaceful Change,’ 238.
388.
Schumann, ‘War, Peace, and the Balance of Power,’ 75.

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Pemberton, JA. (2020). Conferences at Prague and Bergen and the Looming War. In: The Story of International Relations, Part Three. Palgrave Studies in International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31827-7_3

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