Abstract
China’s approach to environmental protection in regions such as Africa and Southeast Asia is shaped by a diversity of factors which not only includes the importance of protecting the environment, but also other geopolitical factors. While China has developed similar environmental policies and committed itself to action plans with both regions through platforms such as the Forum for China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), different regions have different contexts, and China appears to engage somewhat differently within these contexts. Through its policy plans with ASEAN, China appears to be doing a noteworthy job on addressing environmental concerns, however, in reality, issues related to China’s economic ambitions, access to resources as well as securing claimed territories in regions such as the South China Sea is given more attention. On the other hand in Africa, China appears to address environmental concerns through different platforms and in practical ways such as establishing formal agreements with affected countries. The chapter demonstrates similarities in China’s engagement with environmental protection with both regions, differences in their approach, as well as considers their broader geopolitical motives for those differences.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
China formulated the “go out, go global” policy in 2001, encouraging Chinese enterprises to engage in obtaining natural resources and infrastructure development abroad so as to secure supply for China (Mol 2011).
- 2.
The main shipping route between the Indian and the Pacific Oceans, the South China Sea carries trillions worth of trade annually and “lies at the heart of Chinese global expansion” according to Hawksley (2018: 28). The South China Sea disputes involve both island and maritime claims among several sovereign states within the region, namely Brunei, China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. China has made ructions by using its military power in order to claim sovereignty over parts of the South China Sea.
- 3.
The BRI is a development strategy adopted by the Chinese government through which China wants to boost trade and stimulate economic growth across Asia and beyond. The initiative aims to strengthen infrastructure, trade and investment links between China and other regions.
- 4.
The Mekong River is the twelfth longest river in the world and flows through China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Experts claim that proposed dam projects for the Mekong River as well as tributaries may threaten fish populations as well as alter the river’s hydrology system.
- 5.
“Production of palm oil, the world’s most widely used vegetable oil, and derivatives that go into making detergents, cosmetics and biofuel, is one of Indonesia’s most important industries, employing millions and bringing in billions of dollars in foreign currency through exports” (Rachman 2018).
- 6.
Africa is home to two rhino species—the black and white rhino. Black rhinos are concentrated in South Africa, Namibia, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. Their population size is approximately 5000–5400 and they are listed as critically endangered on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) list. White rhinos mainly occur in just four countries: South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya and their population size is approximately 19,600–21,000. The white rhino is listed as near threatened.
- 7.
Two Asian species (Javan and Sumatran rhino) are found in Southeast Asia. There are approximately 58–68 Javan individuals surviving in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java, Indonesia. Vietnam’s last Javan rhino was poached in 2010. Also there are fewer than 100 Sumatran individuals in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. Both species are listed as critically endangered on the CITES list.
- 8.
This market caused an endemic species in Bali, the “Bali starling”, to become nearly extinct (van Balen et al. 2000 in Contreras 2016).
- 9.
The programme has three components, namely Green Innovation (capability building for government decision makers), Green Pioneer (awareness and education for youth) and Green Entrepreneur (establishment of partnership among enterprises for green development).
- 10.
Cambodia is an interesting case in its relations with China, as Cambodia became “a crucial diplomatic component in Beijing’s South China Sea strategy” (Hawksley 2018: 63). In the 2012 ASEAN forum, for the first time in ASEAN history, ministers failed to issue a joint statement on creating an agreed-upon negotiating position with China on the South China Sea, as Cambodia’s Hun Sen backed Beijing (Hawksley 2018). Since then China’s grip on Cambodia has only tightened. In 2017 Cambodia expelled a US navy unit that was involved in school and health projects for many years. In return, it was given billions of dollars from China to build a new sports stadium, airport and other project (Hawksley 2018).
- 11.
“ASEAN has a policy of not interfering in the running of each country, has worked toward setting up a free trade area, declaring the region a nuclear-weapons-free-zone, and has an emphasis on quiet, non-argumentative diplomacy and consensual decision making” (Hawksley 2018: 61).
- 12.
“4.6.4 The two sides will strengthen cooperation in the area of wildlife protection, help African countries to improve the protection capabilities, build the capacity of environmental rangers, provide African countries with training opportunities on environmental and ecological conservation, explore the possibility of cooperating on wildlife protection demonstration projects and jointly fight against the illegal trade of fauna and flora products, especially addressing endangered species poaching on the African continent, in particular elephants and rhinos” (FOCAC 2015).
- 13.
“There are currently 78 dams planned for the Mekong Delta. If built, they are projected to reduce the number of migratory fish by 20% to 70% in the Mekong, in addition to flooding essential habitats and causing regional droughts. The Mekong has the highest freshwater diversity in the world, and the potential extinction of so many species represents a global catastrophe” (Hughes 2017).
- 14.
Beyond territorial issues, the South China Sea region is also host to several environmentally related transboundary issues: “shipping, fishing and the movement of migratory and alien species”—involving multiple countries, as well as “the fact that the coastal systems of Southeast Asia are in a state of severe degradation” (Contreras 2016: 150).
References
Agence France-Presse. 2017. “There’s No Law Enforcement”: Laos Has Become the World’s Fastest-Growing Ivory Market, Thanks to Chinese Demand, September 28. https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/2113282/theres-no-law-enforcement-laos-has-become-worlds-fastest. Accessed 8 Aug 2018.
———. 2018. China Defends Decision to Ease Rhino, Tiger Parts Ban, October 30. https://ewn.co.za/2018/10/30/china-defends-decision-to-ease-rhino-tiger-parts-ban. Accessed 5 Nov 2018.
Argut, L. 2016. The Environmental Impact of China’s Activities in Africa: The Case of Kenya. Masters thesis, University of Nairobi.
Bosshard, P. 2008. China’s Environmental Footprint in Africa. South African Institute of International Affairs. https://www.internationalrivers.org/sites/default/files/attached-files/saiia_policy_briefing_508.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2018.
Burgess, M. 2014. Is Increased Chinese Infrastructure Linked to Dwindling Numbers of African Wildlife? Centre for Chinese Studies, Commentary. http://www0.sun.ac.za/ccs/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/CCS_Commentary_Chinese_infrastructure_wildlife_MB_2014.pdf. Accessed 12 Aug 2018.
———. 2015. Environmental Matters at FOCAC VI: More Than Just “Other Matters”. Centre for Chinese Studies, Commentary. http://www0.sun.ac.za/ccs/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/CCS_Commentary_FOCAC_ENVIRO_MB_16NOV2015.pdf. Accessed 14 Apr 2018.
Burgess, M., and H. Esterhuyse. 2015. Raising the Bar on Sustainable Development: Renewable Energy and Environmental Standards in FOCAC VI [Online]. Centre for Chinese Studies, Policy Briefing 7. http://www.ccs.org.za/?cat=88. Accessed 14 Apr 2018.
Comptom, J. 2007. China Hosts ASEAN to Close Net on Wildlife Crime, TRAFFIC, September 14. http://www.traffic.org/home/2007/9/14/china-hosts-asean-to-close-net-on-wildlife-crime.html. Accessed 9 July 2018.
Contreras, A. 2016. Transboundary Environmental Politics in Southeast Asia: Issues, Responses and Challenges. In Routledge Handbook of the Environment in Southeast Asia, ed. P. Hirsch, 147–156. Oxon: Routledge.
Department of Environmental Affairs. 2013. Update on Rhino Poaching and Signing of MoU Between South Africa and the People’s Republic of China. https://www.environment.gov.za/mediarelease/updaterhinopoaching_signingmoubetween_sa_china. Accessed 1 June 2018.
Eisenman, J. 2007. China’s Post-Cold War Strategy in Africa: Examining Beijing’s Methods and Objectives. In China and the Developing World: Beijing’s Strategy for the Twenty-First Century, ed. J. Eisenman, E. Heginbotham, and D. Mitchell, 29–59. New York: M.E. Sharpe.
FOCAC. 2015. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Johannesburg Action Plan. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1323159.shtml. Accessed 12 Mar 2018.
Glosny, M. 2007. Stabilising the Backyard: Recent Developments in China’s Policy Toward Southeast Asia. In China and the Developing World: Beijing’s Strategy for the Twenty-First Century, ed. J. Eisenman, E. Heginbotham, and D. Mitchell, 150–188. New York: M.E. Sharpe.
Hawksley, H. 2018. Asian Waters: The Struggle Over the South China Sea and the Strategy of Chinese Expansion. London: Duckworth Overlook.
Herman, F. 2017. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation: Towards a Path of Regime Formation in Environmental Conservation. Africa Review 10 (1): 101–121.
Hodal, K. 2012. China Invests in South-East Asia for Trade, Food, Energy and Resources. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/22/china-south-east-asia-influence. Accessed 28 Aug 2018.
Hughes, A. 2017. Even as More New Species Are Found, Southeast Asia Is in the Grip of a Biodiversity Crisis. The Conversation, January 5. https://theconversation.com/even-as-more-new-species-are-found-southeast-asia-is-in-the-grip-of-a-biodiversity-crisis-67700. Accessed 28 June 2018.
International Institute for Environment and Development. 2015. The Dragon and the Giraffe: China in African Forests, IIED Briefing. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/17302IIED.pdf. Accessed 7 Aug 2018.
Kamau, J. (2016). China and Kenya Partner on Study of Environment. The Star, September 28. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2016/09/28/china-and-kenya-partner-on-study-of-environment_c1427541. Accessed 12 Feb 2014.
Li, H. 2015. China House, an Initiative to Help Chinese in Africa Integrate Better. South China Morning Post, March 14. http://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1735859/china-house-initiative-help-chinese-africa-integrate-better. Accessed 14 Feb 2018.
Ministry of Environmental Protection of China. n.d. ASEAN-China Strategy on Environmental Cooperation: 2016–2020. http://environment.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/ASEAN-China-Strategy-on-Environmental-Cooperation-2016-2020.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar 2018.
Mol, A. 2011. China’s Ascent and Africa’s Environment. Global Environmental Change 21: 785–794.
Monfreda, C. 2014. Kenya and China Sign Bilateral Agreements on Environment, IISD. http://sdg.iisd.org/news/kenya-and-china-sign-bilateral-agreements-on-environment/. Accessed 12 Feb 2014.
Ndirangu, W. 2017. Kenya Signs a Statement of Intent Between Africa Governments and China. Kenya News Agency. http://kenyanewsagency.go.ke/en/?p=120209. Accessed 12 Feb 2018.
Nzwili, F. 2014. China Pledges $10 Million in Support of Wildlife Conservation in Africa. http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/13/china-pledges-10-million-in-support-of-wildlife-conservation-in-africa/. Accessed 12 Feb 2014.
Patroba, H. 2012. China in Kenya: Addressing Counterfeit Goods and Construction Sector Imbalances, SAIIA. Occasional Paper 110.
Pike, L. 2017. Will China’s New Silk Road be Green? The Third Pole.Net. https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/30/will-chinas-new-silk-road-be-green/. Accessed 22 July 2018.
Power, M., G. Mohan, and M. Tan-Mullins. 2012. China’s Resource Diplomacy in Africa: Powering Development? New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Priyandita, G., and T. Wijaya. 2017. China’s Southeast Asia Gambit. The Diplomat, May 31. https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/chinas-southeast-asia-gambit/. Accessed 23 Mar 2018.
Rachman, A. 2018. China Opens Door to More Indonesian Palm Oil as EU Seeks Import Ban. Wall Street Journal, May 7. https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-opens-door-to-more-indonesian-palm-oil-as-eu-seeks-import-ban-1525694510. Accessed 28 Aug 2018.
Rose, B. 2015. Southeast Asia’s Illicit Wildlife Trade: International Cooperation Necessary to Find Solution. East by Southeast, May 16. http://www.eastbysoutheast.com/southeast-asias-illicit-wildlife-trade-international-cooperation-necessary-to-find-solution/. Accessed 7 July 2018.
Shinn, D. 2016. The Environmental Impact of China’s Investment in Africa. Cornell International Law Journal 49: 25–67.
Sotheary, P. 2018. China Signs Environment Pacts—With Cambodia. Khmer Times, July 5. https://www.khmertimeskh.com/50508266/china-signs-environment-pacts/. Accessed 6 July 2018.
State Forestry Administration of China. 2014. China in Action: Protecting Wildlife and Combating Illegal Trade. http://english.forestry.gov.cn/uploads/Information_Services/Latest_Publication/China_in_Action.pdf. Accessed 9 July 2018.
TRAFFIC. 2012. China and ASEAN States Join Hands to Curb Illegal Wildlife Trade. http://www.traffic.org/home/2012/7/2/china-and-asean-states-join-hands-to-curb-illegal-wildlife-t.html. Accessed 3 July 2018.
———. 2015. China and Africa Summit Agrees to Enhance Joint Efforts Against Illegal Trade of Fauna and Flora. http://www.traffic.org/home/2015/12/8/china-and-africa-summit-agrees-to-enhance-joint-efforts-agai.html. Accessed 3 July 2018.
Trajano, J., L. Gong, M. Sembiring, and R. Astuti. 2017. Marine Environmental Protection in the South China Sea: Challenges and Prospects Part I. RSIS. https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/8256/MEP-Insight-1_11-Dec-2017_final_TN.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed 15 Sept 2018.
———. 2018. Marine Environmental Protection in the South China Sea: Challenges and Prospects: Part 2. RSIS, https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/MEP-Insight-2-19-February.pdf. Accessed 15 Sept 2018.
Turner, J., and A. Wu. 2011. Step Lightly: China’s Ecological Impact on Southeast Asia. Wilson Centre, July 7. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/step-lightly-chinas-ecological-impact-southeast-asia. Accessed 21 Mar 2018.
Walker, B. 2017. China’s Climate Aid Flows into Myanmar. China Dialogue, March 28. https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/9701-China-s-climate-aid-flows-into-Myanmar. Accessed 5 Mar 2018.
Xia, Y. 2017. Public Diplomacy Platform. Chinafrica, http://www.chinafrica.cn/Business/201701/t20170111_800085167.html. Accessed 13 Feb 2018.
Yeophantong, P. 2015. Assessing Local Responses to Chinese-Backed Resource Development Projects. The Journal of Territorial and Maritime Studies 2 (2): 95–110.
Zhu, Z. 2014. China’s New Diplomacy: Rationale, Strategies and Significance. Surrey: Ashgate.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Burgess, M. (2020). China’s Global Environmental Engagement—Africa and Southeast Asia in Comparison. In: Anthony, R., Ruppert, U. (eds) Reconfiguring Transregionalisation in the Global South. International Political Economy Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28311-7_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28311-7_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-28310-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-28311-7
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)