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Towards Intersex Legal Protection Beyond Europe

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Intersex Rights

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Abstract

Human rights have been institutionalised globally through the United Nations system and the connections between the development of international human rights institutions, frameworks and policies. At the same time, the development of international human rights law and policy have been influenced by regionalism. Regional human rights bodies monitor, promote and protect human rights around the world. Furthermore, regional human rights systems play a significant role in protecting human rights among their Member States, including by deciding States’ responsibility for violations alleged in complaints submitted by individuals. Different theories on the relationship between international and regional human rights law and mechanisms have been advanced over the years. For instance, a growing literature emphasises the extent to which international human rights norms are incorporated into domestic legal systems and how this internalisation affects political actors. Other schools of literature evaluate the empirical relationship between country participation in human rights treaties and country performance on different measures of human rights in practice.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Engstrom (2017).

  2. 2.

    Idem.

  3. 3.

    International Justice Resource Center, “Regional Systems”.

  4. 4.

    See Koh (1997).

  5. 5.

    See Hathaway (2002), Goodliffe and Hawkins (2006) and Vreeland (2007).

  6. 6.

    See Harding (2011) and Scherpe (2015).

  7. 7.

    United Nations Charter, Article 1 (3).

  8. 8.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 2.

  9. 9.

    United Nations Human Rights Commission, Campaign Dossier, p. 3.

  10. 10.

    Idem.

  11. 11.

    Idem.

  12. 12.

    See 2006 Joint Statement, 3rd Session of the Human Rights Council, Ambassador & Permanent Representative of Norway to the United Nations Office in Geneva.

  13. 13.

    HRC RES 17/19 HR, para. 1.

  14. 14.

    See Annual report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and reports of the Office of the High Commissioner and the Secretary-General, A/HRC/19/41, “Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity”.

  15. 15.

    Gary and Rubin, 2012.

  16. 16.

    A/HRC/RES/27/32, para. 2.

  17. 17.

    A/HRC/RES/32/2, para. 3 (a).

  18. 18.

    Carroll and Mendos, 2017, p. 8.

  19. 19.

    TGEU, map on “Criminalisation and Prosecution of Trans People”, 2018.

  20. 20.

    See OHCHR, UN Women, UNAIDS, UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF, WHO, “Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization” An interagency statement, 2014.

  21. 21.

    See Free & Equal United Nations for LGBT Equality, Factsheet: Intersex, 2015.

  22. 22.

    United Nations A/RES/70/1, 2015, p. 1.

  23. 23.

    See also Targets 3.7 and 3.8.

  24. 24.

    Idem, p. 16.

  25. 25.

    The Global Forum on MSM & HIV & OutRight Action International (2017), p. 28.

  26. 26.

    Targets 5.1 and 5.2.

  27. 27.

    A/RES/70/1, 2015, p. 18.

  28. 28.

    See Targets 10.2 and 10.3.

  29. 29.

    A/RES/70/1, 2015, p. 25.

  30. 30.

    See Human Rights Council A/HRC/22/53, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Juan E. Méndez”, 2013 and Human Rights Council A/HRC/31/57, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”, 2016.

  31. 31.

    See Table 3.1. Legislation and case law on intersex people’s rights in Africa.

  32. 32.

    See Table 3.4. Legislation, case law, practices on intersex people’s rights in Asia.

  33. 33.

    See Table 3.3. Legislation, case law, practices on intersex people’s rights in Oceania.

  34. 34.

    See Table 3.2. Legislation, case law, practices on intersex people’s rights in Americas.

  35. 35.

    Illegal same-sex sexual acts in Africa (33 States: 24 of which apply to women): Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Comoros, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Libya, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. See ILGA, “State-Sponsored Homophobia, A World Survey of Sexual Orientation Laws: Criminalisation, Protection and Recognition”, 11th Edition, Updated to October 2016.

  36. 36.

    Jobson et al. (2012), p. 160.

  37. 37.

    Idem.

  38. 38.

    SOGIE Unit, “Fact sheet on intersex persons”.

  39. 39.

    Idem.

  40. 40.

    African (Banjul) Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights Adopted 27 June 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982), entered into force 21 October 1986.

  41. 41.

    275: Resolution on Protection against Violence and other Human Rights Violations against Persons on the basis of their real or imputed Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity, Adopted at the 55th Ordinary Session of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights in Luanda, Angola, 28 April to 12 May 2014.

  42. 42.

    General Comment No. 4 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The Right to Redress for Victims of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Punishment or Treatment (Article 5), Adopted at the 21st Extra-Ordinary Session of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, held from 23 February to 4 March 2017 in Banjul, The Gambia, para. 59.

  43. 43.

    Astraea Lesbian Foundation for Justice, “Public Statement by the African Intersex Movement”.

  44. 44.

    See Penal Code, Section 162 “Unnatural offences”.

  45. 45.

    Kenya National Commission on Human Rights, 2012, p. 92.

  46. 46.

    Article 2 (5) of the 2010 Constitution “The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya” and Article 2 (6) “Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution”.

  47. 47.

    Kenya National Commission on Human Rights, 2012, p. 102.

  48. 48.

    The Kenya Human Rights Commission, 2011, p. 25.

  49. 49.

    Idem, p. 43.

  50. 50.

    Idem.

  51. 51.

    The Kenya Human Rights Commission, 2011, p. 42.

  52. 52.

    Idem, p. 40.

  53. 53.

    International Commission of Jurists, “Richard Muasya v. the Hon. Attorney General, Hight Court of Kenya (2 December 2010).

  54. 54.

    Idem.

  55. 55.

    Richard Muasya v. the Hon. Attorney General, Hight Court of Kenya Petition No. 705 of 2007, para. 106.

  56. 56.

    Idem, paras. 160–170.

  57. 57.

    International Commission of Jurists, “Richard Muasya v. the Hon. Attorney General, Hight Court of Kenya (2 December 2010) and paras. 119–133.

  58. 58.

    National Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission, Network for Adolescent and Youth of Africa, Gay and Lesbian Coalition of Kenya, East Africa Trans & Advocacy Network, 2017, p. 6.

  59. 59.

    Idem and Baby ‘A’ (suing through the Mother E.A.) & another v. Attorney General & 6 others [2014] eKLR, petition no. 266 of 2013, paras. 51–53.

  60. 60.

    Idem and paras. 54–67.

  61. 61.

    The Kenya Gazette, May 26 2017.

  62. 62.

    Richard Muasya v. the Hon. Attorney General, Hight Court of Kenya Petition No. 705 of 2007, para. 148.

  63. 63.

    Baby ‘A’ (suing through the Mother E.A.) & another v. Attorney General & 6 others [2014] eKLR, petition no. 266 of 2013, para. 66.

  64. 64.

    Kangaude et al. (2017), p. 132.

  65. 65.

    Baby ‘A’ (suing through the Mother E.A.) & another v. Attorney General & 6 others [2014] eKLR, petition no. 266 of 2013, para. 61.

  66. 66.

    Kangaude et al. (2017), p. 132.

  67. 67.

    Idem.

  68. 68.

    Ilyayambwa (2012), p. 51.

  69. 69.

    Para. 133 “This judgment holds that in determining the normative limits of permissible sexual conduct, homosexual erotic activity must be treated on an equal basis with heterosexual, in other words, that the same-sex quality of the conduct must not be a consideration in determining where and how the law should intervene (…)”.

  70. 70.

    See Minister of Home Affairs and Another v Fourie and Another (CCT 60/04) [2005] ZACC 19; 2006 (3) BCLR 355 (CC); 2006 (1) SA 524 (CC) (1 December 2005).

  71. 71.

    Preamble: “And noting that the family law dispensation as it existed after the commencement of the Constitution did not provide for same-sex couples to enjoy the status and the benefits couples with the responsibilities that marriage accords to opposite-sex couples, be it therefore enacted by the Parliament of the Republic of South Africa as follows (…)”.

  72. 72.

    See Du Toit and Another v Minister of Welfare and Population Development and Others (CCT40/01) [2002] ZACC 20; 2002 (10) BCLR 1006; 2003 (2) SA 198 (CC) (10 September 2002).

  73. 73.

    See Children’s Act 38, 2015, Section 231 “Persons who may adopt child”.

  74. 74.

    See Alteration of Sex Description and Sex Status Act, 2003 enacted by the Parliament of South Africa.

  75. 75.

    Ilyayambwa (2012), p. 51.

  76. 76.

    Rosenbloom (2014), p. 55.

  77. 77.

    Scheepers and Lakani (2017), p. 141.

  78. 78.

    Rosenbloom (2014), p. 55.

  79. 79.

    Amendment of section 1 of Act 4 of 2000.

  80. 80.

    Prevention and Combating of Hate Crimes and Hate Speech Bill, Clause 4, 3.4.1.

  81. 81.

    Section “Application for alteration of sex description”, (2) (d).

  82. 82.

    CRC/C/ZAF/CO/2*, para. 39.

  83. 83.

    Idem, para. 40 (d).

  84. 84.

    Section 129(2) of the Children’s Act provides; “A child may consent to his or her own medical treatment or the medical treatment of his or her child ifa. The child is over the age of 12 years; and b. The child is of sufficient maturity and has the mental capacity to understand the benefits, risks, social and other implications of the treatment.” Section 129(3) provides similarly in relation to surgical operations and additionally stipulates that a parent, guardian or caregiver may “duly assist”.

  85. 85.

    National Intersex Meeting Report 2018, pp. 21–22.

  86. 86.

    Idem.

  87. 87.

    Idem, p. 14.

  88. 88.

    Idem.

  89. 89.

    Government of Uganda, Constitution of Uganda, 2005, Section 31 Article 2a.

  90. 90.

    Government of Uganda, Penal Code Act 1950, chapter 120.

  91. 91.

    Idem, Penal Code Act 1950, Section 148.

  92. 92.

    Idem, Section 160.

  93. 93.

    Idem, Section 167.

  94. 94.

    Idem, Section 168.

  95. 95.

    Idem, Section 381.

  96. 96.

    Bill No. 35, Sexual Offences Bill, 2015, Part II, Section 16 (c).

  97. 97.

    Human Rights first, p. 1.

  98. 98.

    Bill No. 18, The Anti Homosexuality Act, 2009, Part I, Section 7.

  99. 99.

    Idem, See Section 3 and (2) “A person who commits the offence of aggravated homosexuality shall be liable on conviction to suffer death”.

  100. 100.

    McKayl and Angotti (2016).

  101. 101.

    CNN, “Uganda’s President Museveni signs controversial anti-gay bill into law”.

  102. 102.

    McKayl and Angotti (2016).

  103. 103.

    Kangaude et al. (2017), p. 140.

  104. 104.

    Prof J. Oloka Onyango & 9 Others v Attorney Gerneral (Constitutional Petition No. 08 of 2014) [2014[UGCC 14 (1 August 2014), Answer to question 2 (i) and (ii).

  105. 105.

    Kangaude et al. (2017), p. 142.

  106. 106.

    Independent Advisory Group on Country Information, 2017, p. 14.

  107. 107.

    Thapa (2015), p. 1.

  108. 108.

    Idem.

  109. 109.

    Civil Society Coalition on Human Rights and Constitutional Law et al. (2014), p. 19.

  110. 110.

    Idem.

  111. 111.

    Idem, p. 27.

  112. 112.

    Idem, p. 30.

  113. 113.

    Idem, p. 37.

  114. 114.

    Support Initiative for Persons with Congenital Disorders, 2016.

  115. 115.

    Idem.

  116. 116.

    Idem.

  117. 117.

    Finnish Immigration Service (2015), pp. 91–91.

  118. 118.

    Idem.

  119. 119.

    A/HRC/WG.6/26/UGA/2, 2016, para. 24.

  120. 120.

    Idem, para. 25.

  121. 121.

    Corrales (2015), p. 54.

  122. 122.

    OAS/Ser.L/V/II.rev.1, 2015, Chapter 4 para. 10.

  123. 123.

    Idem, para. 11.

  124. 124.

    Atravia Murillo et al. (In Vitro Fertilization) v. Costa Rica, Preliminary objections, merits, reparations and costs, Judgment, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R., (ser C) No. 257, 2012, para. 143.

  125. 125.

    Gelman v. Uruguay, Merits and Reparations, Judgment, Inter-Am. Ct. H. R. (ser C) No. 221, 2011, para. 122.

  126. 126.

    Library of Congress, Global Legal Monitor “Costa Rica/OAS: Inter-American Court of Human Rights Declares Right to Marry Should Be Extended to Same-Sex Couples”.

  127. 127.

    Ramirez, “Latin America Could Lead the Way for LGBT Rights in 2018” and See I/A Court H.R. Gender identity, and equality and non-discrimination with regard to same-sex couples. State obligations in relation to change of name, gender identity, and rights deriving from a relationship between same-sex couples (interpretation and scope of Articles 1(1), 3, 7, 11(2), 13, 17, 18 and 24, in relation to Article 1, of the American Convention on Human Rights). Advisory Opinion OC-24/17 of November 24, 2017. Series A No. 24 (available in Spanish).

  128. 128.

    Opinión consultiva OC-24/17 de 24 de Noviembre de 2017 solicitada por la república de Costa Rica Identidad de género, e igualdad y no discriminación a parejas del mismo sexo obligaciones estatales en relación con el cambio de nombre, la identidad de género, y los derechos derivados de un vínculo entre parejas del mismo sexo (interpretación y alcance de los artículos 1.1, 3, 7, 11.2, 13, 17, 18 y 24, en relación con el artículo 1 de la Convención Americana sobre derechos humanos), para. 39.

  129. 129.

    American Convention on Human Rights “Pact of San Jose, Costa Rica”, Signatories and Ratifications.

  130. 130.

    Identidad & Diversidad, Ley 26.618-Matrimonio Igualtorio (2010).

  131. 131.

    Articulo 2° — Sustitúyese el artículo 172 del Código Civil, el que quedará redactado de la siguiente forma: Artículo 172: El matrimonio tendrá los mismos requisitos y efectos, con independencia de que los contrayentes sean del mismo o de diferente sexo.

  132. 132.

    See Ley 26.618-Matrimonio Igualitario (2010).

  133. 133.

    Libro Segundo, Relaciones de Familia, Titulo I, Matrimonio, Capitulo 1, Principios de libertad y de igualdad, Artículo 402.- interpretación y aplicación de las normas. Ninguna norma puede ser interpretada ni aplicada en el sentido de limitar, restringir, excluir o suprimir la igualdad de derechos y obligaciones de los integrantes del matrimonio, y los efectos que éste produce, sea constituido por dos personas de distinto o igual sexo.

  134. 134.

    Ley 28.862: Reproducción Médicamente Asistida “Que la Ley No 26.862 establece que pueden acceder a las prestaciones de reproducción médicamente asistida todas las personas mayores de edad sin que se pueda introducir requisitos o limitaciones que impliquen discriminación o exclusioón fundandas en la orientación sexual o el estado civil (…).”

  135. 135.

    Ley 26.394 Justicia Militar, Deróganse el Código de Justicia Militar y todas las normas, resoluciones y disposiciones de carácter interno que lo reglamentan. Modifícanse el Código Penal y el Código Procesal Penal de la Nación.

  136. 136.

    Artículo 80 4o: “Por placer, odio racial, de género o a la orientación sexual, identidad de género o su expression.”

  137. 137.

    Ley 26.743 Identidad de Género, Establécese el derecho a la identidad de género de las personas, Sancionada: Mayo 9 de 2012, Promulgada: Mayo 23 de 2012.

  138. 138.

    United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, “UN expert commends Argentina’s “progressive laws and policies” but urges action to stop attacks on LGBT people”.

  139. 139.

    Justicia Intersex and StopIGM.org/Zwischengeschlecht.org, 2017, p. 7.

  140. 140.

    Idem, p. 3.

  141. 141.

    Idem, p. 9.

  142. 142.

    Idem, p. 8.

  143. 143.

    Idem.

  144. 144.

    Instituto Nacional contra la Discriminación, la Xenofobia y el Racismo, 2015, p. 49.

  145. 145.

    Archivo Prensa INADI, “Intersexualidad: el INADI contra la violencia del Sistema binario de sexo y de género”.

  146. 146.

    Archivo Prensa INADI, “Intersexualidad: el INADI contra la violencia del Sistema binario de sexo y de género”.

  147. 147.

    TGEU, English Translation of Argentina’s Gender Identity Law as approved by the Senate of Argentina on May 8, 2012.

  148. 148.

    Articulo 2o- […] a través de medios farmacológicos, quirúrgicos o de otra índole, siempre que ello sea libremente escogido […].

  149. 149.

    Instituto Nacional contra la Discriminación, la Xenofobia y el Racismo, 2015, pp. 50–51.

  150. 150.

    See Ley Número 20.609, Establece Medidas Contra La Discriminación.

  151. 151.

    Ley Número 20.940, Artículo 1o (1).

  152. 152.

    Ley 20.845, Artículo 1, 7 (c).

  153. 153.

    Ley Número 20.968, Artículo 1 (3).

  154. 154.

    See Acuerdo de Solución Amistosa, Caso P-946-12.

  155. 155.

    See Legislatura 365, Modifica diversos cuerpos legales para regular, en igualdad de condiciones, el matrimonio de parejas del mismo sexo and Rehbein Consuelo, “Conoce los detalles de la ley matrimonio igualitario”.

  156. 156.

    See Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile, “Cambio de sexo registral en Chile: procedimiento legal y jurisprudencia”.

  157. 157.

    Circular No 34, 2. Registros en ficha clínica “Todos los registros derivados de la atención de salud deben contemplar en primer lugar el nombre legal de la persona y en segundo lugar el nombre social con el cual dicha persona se identifica. Esto aplica tanto para la ficha clínica como para la solicitud de exámenes, procedimientos, perescripción de medicamentos y brazaletes de identificación. Se insiste en que la identificación verbal debe ser a través de su nombre social”.

  158. 158.

    Washington Blade, “Chilean House of Deputies approves transgender rights bill”.

  159. 159.

    Gaystarnews, “Trans people in Chile can now change their name and gender, without surgery”.

  160. 160.

    Advisory Opinion OC-24/17 of November 24, 2017, supra, para. 118.

  161. 161.

    Washington Blade, “Chilean House of Deputies approves transgender rights bill”.

  162. 162.

    Observatorio de Derechos Humanos –Chile (Andrés Rivera Duarte) International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (IGLHRC) (2015), p. 2.

  163. 163.

    MOVILH (2017), p. 28.

  164. 164.

    Centro de Derechos Humanos et al. (2016), pp. 346–347.

  165. 165.

    Idem.

  166. 166.

    Gabriela García, “Identidad Forzada”.

  167. 167.

    Centro de Derechos Humanos et al. (2016), p. 344.

  168. 168.

    Idem, p. 345.

  169. 169.

    CRC/C/CHL/CO/4-5, 2015, para. 49.

  170. 170.

    Circular No 18, “Se instruye que se se detengan los tratamientos innecesarios de “normalización” de niños y niñas intersex, incluyendo cirugias genitales irreversibles hasta que tengan edad suficiente para decider sobre sus cuerpos”.

  171. 171.

    Centro de Derechos Humanos et al. (2016), pp. 353–354.

  172. 172.

    Circular No 7, Segundo: “La recomendación que alude a no realizer cirugías inecesarias, no se refiere a patologías en que existe un sexo claramente determinado (…)”.

  173. 173.

    Circular No 7, Cuarto: “Se debe explicitar la posibilidad de diferir la cirugía hasta una edad en que el paciente pueda manifestar o demonstrar tendencias de identidad sexual”.

  174. 174.

    Inter Laura and Aoi Hana (2017), p. 6.

  175. 175.

    Idem.

  176. 176.

    See Ordinario Circular No 1297/2012, Guía Técnica, “Peritaje de Sexología Forense para Personas Trans e Intersex”.

  177. 177.

    See Registro Civil e Identificación, Programa Equidad de Género 2017, “Datos Registrales con Enfoque de Género”.

  178. 178.

    Circular No 21, “las personas intersex o que nacen con ambigüedad genital, también pueden llegar a manifestar una situación similar, cuando el sexo genital, no se corresponde con la identidad de Género que la persona va desarrollando”.

  179. 179.

    See Ordinario Circular No 1297/2012, Guía Técnica, “Peritaje de Sexología Forense para Personas Trans e Intersex” paras. 1 and 3.

  180. 180.

    MOVILH, “Cámara de Diputados aprueba incorporar a niños y niñas LGBTI en proyecto de ley sobre derechos de la infancia”.

  181. 181.

    See Ley No. 1482 de 2011, Artículo 134 A.

  182. 182.

    Idem.

  183. 183.

    See Sentencia C-075 de 2007 Regimen Patrimonial de Compañeros Permanentes-Pareja homosexuals/Parejas Homosexuales y Union Marital de Hecho-Protección patrimonial/Parejas Homosexuales-Vulneración de la dignidad humana y libre desarrollo de la personalidad al excluirlos de regimen de protección patrimonial.

  184. 184.

    Bonilla (2016), p. 185.

  185. 185.

    Pierceson et al. (2013), p. 113.

  186. 186.

    See C-683/15, C-071/15 and T-276/12.

  187. 187.

    Idem, p. 114.

  188. 188.

    Idem.

  189. 189.

    Idem.

  190. 190.

    Idem.

  191. 191.

    Idem, p. 115.

  192. 192.

    See T-063/15, para. 5.1.

  193. 193.

    Idem, para. 5.2.

  194. 194.

    Idem, para. 5.4.

  195. 195.

    See T-805/14, para. 5 and 5.1.

  196. 196.

    See T-392/17, para. 28.

  197. 197.

    Acticle 13 of the Colombian Constitution as translated by Marcia W. Coward, Peter B. Heller, Anna I. Vellve Torras, and Max Planck Institute: “All individuals are born free and equal before the law, will receive equal protection and treatment from the authorities, and will enjoy the same rights, freedoms, and opportunities without any discrimination on account of gender, race, national or family origin, language, religion, political opinion, or philosophy. The State will promote the conditions so that equality may be real and effective and will adopt measures in favor of groups that are discriminated against or marginalized. The State will especially protect those individuals who on account of their economic, physical, or mental condition are in obviously vulnerable circumstances and will sanction the abuses or ill-treatment perpetrated against them.”

  198. 198.

    See T-392/17, para. 29.

  199. 199.

    International Commission of Jurists, SOGI Casebook: “Chapter six: Intersex”.

  200. 200.

    See Sect. 2.2.1.

  201. 201.

    See T-477/95, Part B “Consentimiento de Tratamiento Médico en el Caso de Menores”, Section 13.

  202. 202.

    Idem, Sections 15 and 15.1.

  203. 203.

    International Commission of Jurists, “Sentencia SU 337/99, Constitutional Court of Colombia (12 May 1999)”.

  204. 204.

    Idem.

  205. 205.

    Idem.

  206. 206.

    Idem.

  207. 207.

    SU-337/99, Aclaración final.

  208. 208.

    See T-551/99, para. 29.

  209. 209.

    White (2014), p. 801.

  210. 210.

    See T-912/08 para. 2.4.3. and International Commission of Jurists, SOGI casebook:” Chapter six: intersex”.

  211. 211.

    See T-450A/13, para. 6.2.

  212. 212.

    Idem.

  213. 213.

    Idem, para. 6.3.

  214. 214.

    Nagle-Ortiz (1995), Introduction.

  215. 215.

    Roosevelt Kermit, “Judicial Activism”.

  216. 216.

    Jones (2001), p. 143.

  217. 217.

    Nagle-Ortiz (1995), p. 82.

  218. 218.

    Idem.

  219. 219.

    Constitución Política de Colombia, Actulizada con los Actos Legislativos, 2016.

  220. 220.

    Gonzalez, p. 2.

  221. 221.

    Idem.

  222. 222.

    Gonzalez, p. 1.

  223. 223.

    Idem, p. 5.

  224. 224.

    Idem, p. 6.

  225. 225.

    See also Scherpe et al. (2018) and Part IV, “Colombia (The Colombian Constitutional Court)” by Ruth Rubio-Marín and Stefano Osella in particular.

  226. 226.

    See Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 2003. See also Garland (2006).

  227. 227.

    See Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186, 1986.

  228. 228.

    Human Rights Watch, “Lawrence v. Texas, Constitutional right to privacy of gays and lesbians in the United States”.

  229. 229.

    Idem.

  230. 230.

    See Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 2003, [576].

  231. 231.

    See Windsor v. United States, No. 12-307. Argued March 27, 2013, Decided June 26, 2013.

  232. 232.

    Windsor v. United States, No. 12-307, pp. 25–26.

  233. 233.

    See Obergefell v. Hodges, No. 14-556. Argued April 28, 2015, Decided June 26, 2015.

  234. 234.

    Obergefell v. Hodges, No. 14-556, p. 10.

  235. 235.

    Idem, p. 2.

  236. 236.

    Cruz (2015–2016), Abstract.

  237. 237.

    Human Rights Watch (2018), p. 6.

  238. 238.

    Idem, p. 2.

  239. 239.

    Mississipi House Bill 1523, 2016, Section 3.

  240. 240.

    Idem.

  241. 241.

    Tennessee Senate Bill 1556, 2016, Section 1(a).

  242. 242.

    Kazyak et al. (2018), p. 14.

  243. 243.

    Idem.

  244. 244.

    Human Rights Committee, General Comment 22, paras. 3–4.

  245. 245.

    “(…) respect for the rights and reputations of others, and protection of national security, public order, public health or morals”.

  246. 246.

    Human Rights Watch (2018), p. 35.

  247. 247.

    Human Rights Watch and Interact (2017), p. 48.

  248. 248.

    Idem, p. 50.

  249. 249.

    See SPLC Southern Poverty Law Center, “M.C. v. Aaronson”.

  250. 250.

    Idem.

  251. 251.

    See M.C. v. Aaronson, No. 13-2178, United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit.

  252. 252.

    SPLC Southern Poverty Law Center, “M.C. v. Aaronson”.

  253. 253.

    White (2014), p. 820.

  254. 254.

    Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 110, Introduced by Senator Wiener.

  255. 255.

    Section 1557: Protecting Individuals Against Sex Discrimination.

  256. 256.

    InterAct, “Federal Government Bans Discrimination Against Intersex People in Health Care”.

  257. 257.

    Dana uses gender-neutral pronouns “they”, “them” and “their”.

  258. 258.

    Lambda Legal, “Lambda Legal Sues U.S. State Department on Behalf of Intersex Citizen Denied Passport”.

  259. 259.

    Zzyym v. Pompeo (formerly Zzyym v. Tillerson & Zzyym v. Kerry), In the United States District Court for the District of Colorado, Judge R. Brooke Jackson, Civil Action No. 15-cv-02362-RBJ. See also Scherpe et al. (2018) and Part IV, “United States” by Julie A. Greenberg in particular.

  260. 260.

    SB-179 Gender identity: female, male or nonbinary, Senate Bill No. 179, Chapter 853.

  261. 261.

    CNN, “Hundreds have changed genders on NYC birth certificates”.

  262. 262.

    Idem.

  263. 263.

    ILGA, 2017, pp. 141–147.

  264. 264.

    Harriet Smith, “Australia’s marriage-equality debate reverberates through the Pacific”.

  265. 265.

    Equaldex, “LGBT Rights in Oceania”.

  266. 266.

    Darlington Statement, 2017, para. 7.

  267. 267.

    Idem.

  268. 268.

    Idem, para. 8 a,b,c,d.

  269. 269.

    Idem, paras. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.

  270. 270.

    See Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013, No. 98, 213, An Act to amend the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, and for related purposes.

  271. 271.

    The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives, Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Bill 2013, Explanatory Memorandum.

  272. 272.

    Idem.

  273. 273.

    Idem.

  274. 274.

    Australian Government Attorney General’s Department “Same-sex reforms: Overview of the Australian Government’s same-sex law reforms”.

  275. 275.

    The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives, Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Bill 2017, Explanatory Memorandum.

  276. 276.

    Human Rights Law Center, “Australia now has adoption equality”.

  277. 277.

    McAvan Emily, “Why Australia’s gender recognition laws need to change”.

  278. 278.

    ABC News, “ACT to make it easier for transgender people to alter birth certificate”.

  279. 279.

    Sainty Lane, “A Tale of Two Bills: SA Passes Trans Reform, Victoria Cans It”.

  280. 280.

    Jones Jesse, “Victoria Moves to End Forced Divorce for Trans People under Marriage Equality”.

  281. 281.

    The Guardian, “Queensland scraps law forcing married transgender people to divorce”.

  282. 282.

    Human Rights Law Centre, “NSW delivers marriage equality for trans people”.

  283. 283.

    Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (The Constitution), This compilation was prepared on 4 September 2013 considering alterations up to Act No. 84 of 1977.

  284. 284.

    Sex Discrimination Act 1984-SECT 3.

  285. 285.

    Idem-SECT 4 Interpretation.

  286. 286.

    Idem-SECT 3 (b). See also Scherpe et al. (2018) and Part IV National Legal Developments, “Australia” by Claire Fenton-Glynn in particular.

  287. 287.

    Idem-SECT 4 Interpretation.

  288. 288.

    Idem-SECT 37 Religious Bodies.

  289. 289.

    Idem-SECT 42.

  290. 290.

    Intersex Human Rights Australia, “The Yogyakarta Principles+10 launched”.

  291. 291.

    Idem.

  292. 292.

    See The Parliament of Australia, Second Report “Involuntary or coerced sterilisation of intersex people in Australia”, Chapter 3 “Surgery and the assignment of gender”.

  293. 293.

    See Idem, Chapter 5, “Intersex: protection of rights and best practice in health”, The role of the courts and tribunals in the healthcare of intersex people, Recommendation 6.

  294. 294.

    See Re: Carla (Medical procedure) [2016] FamCA 7 (20 January 2016), para. 15 (c).

  295. 295.

    Idem.

  296. 296.

    Idem, “Why the need for the proposed surgery?”.

  297. 297.

    Kennedy (2016), p. 834.

  298. 298.

    NSW Registrar of Births, Deaths and Marriages v Norrie [2014] HCA 11 2 April 2014 S273/2013.

  299. 299.

    Kennedy (2016), p. 829.

  300. 300.

    High Court of Australia, NSW Registrar of Births, Deaths and Marriages v Norrie [2014] HCA 11, Judgment Summary.

  301. 301.

    See NSW Registrar of Births, Deaths and Marriages v Norrie [2014] HCA 11 2 April 2014 S273/2013.

  302. 302.

    See Australian Human Rights Commission, “Sex Files: the legal recognition of sex in documents and government records”, 2009.

  303. 303.

    Intersex Human Rights Australia, “Ten years of “X” passports, and no protection from discrimination”.

  304. 304.

    Australian Government, “Australian Government Guidelines on the Recognition of Sex and Gender”.

  305. 305.

    Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013, Section 2 amended (Interpretation).

  306. 306.

    Human Rights Act 1993, 21 Prohibited grounds of discrimination, 1 (m).

  307. 307.

    The current definition of sex under the Act is: “sex, which includes pregnancy and childbirth”.

  308. 308.

    New Zealand Parliament, Wall, Louisa, 2014.

  309. 309.

    New Zealand Parliament, Human Rights (Gender Identity) Amendment Bill.

  310. 310.

    Attorney-General, “Crown Law opinion on transgender discrimination”, 2006.

  311. 311.

    Human Rights Commission, 2007, p. 4.

  312. 312.

    New Zealand Parliament, Wall, Louisa, 2014.

  313. 313.

    The Department of Internal Affairs, “Information for Transgender Applicants”.

  314. 314.

    Births, Deaths, Marriages, and Relationships Registration Act 1995, Section 28 “Declarations of Family Court as to sex to be shown on birth certificates issued for adults”, 3 (c) (i) (A) (B) (C).

  315. 315.

    Internal Affairs, “General information regarding Declarations of Family Court as to sex to be shown on birth certificates”, p. 3.

  316. 316.

    Human Rights Commission, 2007, p. 69.

  317. 317.

    See Identity and Passports, “Information about Changing Sex/Gender Identity” and The Department of Internal Affairs “Information for Transgender Applicants”.

  318. 318.

    See Human Rights Commission, Human Rights in New Zealand 2010, Section Four-Rights of Specific Groups “19. Rights of Sexual and Gender Minorities”.

  319. 319.

    Human Rights Commission, 2010, p. 320.

  320. 320.

    See OII Australia, Submission to the Australian Human Rights Commission: Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Rights Snapshot Report, February 2015; Intersex Trust Aotearoa New Zealand, Alternate NGO Submission on the sixth periodic report to the United Nations on the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment from New Zealand, January 2015.

  321. 321.

    See New Zealand Crimes Act 1961, s. 204A; Attorney General’s Department, Review of Australia’s Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework – Final Report, 2013.

  322. 322.

    Human Rights Commission, 2016, p. 4.

  323. 323.

    Human Rights Commission, 2010, p. 311.

  324. 324.

    Human Rights Commission, 2010, p. 313.

  325. 325.

    Identity and Passports, “Information about Changing Sex/Gender Identity”.

  326. 326.

    Charter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, The ASEAN Charter.

  327. 327.

    ASEAN Human Rights Declaration and the Phnom Penh Statement on the Adoption of the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration (AHRD).

  328. 328.

    Idem.

  329. 329.

    UN News, “UN Official welcomes ASEAN commitment to human rights, but concerned over declaration wording”.

  330. 330.

    U.S. Department of State, “ASEAN Declaration on Human Rights”.

  331. 331.

    Asia Pacific Forum, 2016, p. 15.

  332. 332.

    Idem.

  333. 333.

    Idem.

  334. 334.

    Idem.

  335. 335.

    Idem, p. 16.

  336. 336.

    Idem, p. 69.

  337. 337.

    Intersex Day, “Statement of Intersex Asia and Asian intersex forum”.

  338. 338.

    See Statement of Intersex Asia and Asian intersex forum, 2018.

  339. 339.

    Shawkat (2016), p. 7.

  340. 340.

    Idem.

  341. 341.

    Stenqvist (2015), p. 10.

  342. 342.

    Idem, p. 11.

  343. 343.

    Hahm (2010), p. 11.

  344. 344.

    Home Office, 2017, p. 21.

  345. 345.

    New York Times, “The Peculiar Position of India’s Third Gender”.

  346. 346.

    Idem.

  347. 347.

    Human Rights Watch (2016), p. 4.

  348. 348.

    Carroll and Mendos, 2017, pp. 47, 68, 71, 73.

  349. 349.

    Section 377: Unnatural offences: Whoever voluntary has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with man, woman, or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment for life, or imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to 10 years, and shall also be liable to fine. Explanation: penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offence described in this section.

  350. 350.

    Home Office, 2017, p. 6.

  351. 351.

    Asia Pacific Forum, 2016, p. 58.

  352. 352.

    Asia Pacific Forum, 2016, p. 53.

  353. 353.

    Idem.

  354. 354.

    377. Unnatural offences. Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with 1∗[imprisonment for life], or with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to 10 years, and shall also be liable to fine. Explanation. Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offence described in this section.

  355. 355.

    The Court stated: “We hold that sexual orientation is a ground analogous to sex and that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is not permitted by Article 15. Further, Article 15(2) incorporates the notion of horizontal application of rights. In other words, it even prohibits discrimination of one citizen by another in matters of access to public spaces. In our view, discrimination on the ground of sexual orientation is impermissible even on the horizontal application of the right enshrined under Article 15.”

  356. 356.

    M/S. Kusum Ingots & Alloys Ltd. vs Union of India And Anr on 28 April, 2004.

  357. 357.

    The Telegraph, “India’s top court upholds law criminalising gay sex”.

  358. 358.

    Independent, “India’s supreme court could be about to decriminalize gay sex in major victory for LGBT rights”.

  359. 359.

    Independent, “India’s Supreme Court rules gay sex is no longer a crime in historic Section 377 judgment”.

  360. 360.

    The Times of India, “In a first, Gurgaon court recognizes lesbian marriage”.

  361. 361.

    National Legal Services Authority v Union of India and Others (Writ Petition No. 400 of 2012 with Writ Petition No. 604 of 2013), Case summary. See also Scherpe et al. (2018) and Part IV National Legal Developments, “India” by Smita Shah in particular.

  362. 362.

    National Legal Services Authority v Union of India and Others (Writ Petition No. 400 of 2012 with Writ Petition No. 604 of 2013), para. 44.

  363. 363.

    Idem.

  364. 364.

    Idem.

  365. 365.

    Idem, para. 45.

  366. 366.

    National Legal Services Authority v Union of India and Others (Writ Petition No. 400 of 2012 with Writ Petition No. 604 of 2013), Case summary.

  367. 367.

    Idem.

  368. 368.

    Idem.

  369. 369.

    See Shivani Bhat v. State of NCT of Delhi and Ors., Delhi High Court on 5 October, 2015.

  370. 370.

    Nanda (1999), p. xx.

  371. 371.

    UNDP, USAID (2014), p. 29.

  372. 372.

    See The Constitution of Nepal, Date of Publication in Nepal Gazette, 20 September 2015 (2072.6.3).

  373. 373.

    Rajani Shah v. National Women Commission et al., Supreme Court of Nepal, April 11, 2013.

  374. 374.

    International Commission of Jurists, Sunil Babu Pant and Others/ v. Nepal Government and Others, Supreme Court of Nepal (21 December 2007).

  375. 375.

    Idem.

  376. 376.

    Sunil Babu Pant and Others/ v. Nepal Government and Others, Supreme Court of Nepal (21 December 2007), p. 266.

  377. 377.

    Idem, para. 4, p. 278.

  378. 378.

    International Commission of Jurists, Sunil Babu Pant and Others/ v. Nepal Government and Others, Supreme Court of Nepal (21 December 2007).

  379. 379.

    Sunil Babu Pant and Others/ v. Nepal Government and Others, Supreme Court of Nepal (21 December 2007), p. 284.

  380. 380.

    Idem, p. 281.

  381. 381.

    Idem, para. 4, p. 278.

  382. 382.

    Pakistan Penal Code (XLV of 1860) 6th October, 1860.

  383. 383.

    U.S. State government report, 2017, p. 45.

  384. 384.

    Idem.

  385. 385.

    ZeeNews, “Pakistan court allows woman to change sex”.

  386. 386.

    International Commission of Jurists, Khaki v. Rawalpindi, Supreme Court of Pakistan (12 December 2009), Case summary.

  387. 387.

    Khaki v. Rawalpindi, Supreme Court of Pakistan, Constitution Petition No. 43 of 2009, para. 2.

  388. 388.

    International Commission of Jurists, Khaki v. Rawalpindi, Supreme Court of Pakistan (12 December 2009), Case summary.

  389. 389.

    Idem.

  390. 390.

    See Khaki v. Rawalpindi, Supreme Court of Pakistan, Constitution Petition No. 43 of 2009, paras. 3–5.

  391. 391.

    Pakistan Today, “Don’t we count? Transgender Pakistanis feel sidelined by census”.

  392. 392.

    Reuters, “Pakistan counts transgender people in national census for first time”.

  393. 393.

    See Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, para. n (i) (ii) (iii).

  394. 394.

    Idem, Chapter II, para. 3 (1).

  395. 395.

    Idem, (3).

  396. 396.

    Independent, “Pakistan passes law guaranteeing transgender rights” and Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018 Chapter III.

  397. 397.

    Asia Pacific Forum, 2016, p. 16.

  398. 398.

    The Revised Penal Code of the Philippines, An Act Revising the Penal Code and Other Penal Laws, Art. 200.

  399. 399.

    UNDP-USAID, 2014, p. 22.

  400. 400.

    Idem, p. 23.

  401. 401.

    Idem.

  402. 402.

    Republic Act No. 9048 March 22, 2001, An Act Authorizing the City or Municipal Civil Registrar or the Consul General to Correct a Clerical or Typographical Error in an Entry and/or Change of First Name of Nickname in the Civil Register without Need of a Judicial Order, Section 2 (3).

  403. 403.

    See Rommel Jacinto Dantes Silverio v. Republic of the Philippines, Section “No Law Allows the Change of Entry in the Birth Certificate As To Sex On the Ground of Sex Reassignment”.

  404. 404.

    Idem.

  405. 405.

    Idem, Section “Neither May Entries in the Birth Certificate as to First Name or Sex Be Changed on the Ground of Equity”.

  406. 406.

    Idem.

  407. 407.

    Ocampo (2011), p. 195.

  408. 408.

    International Commission of Jurists, Republic of the Philippines v. Jennifer Cagandahan, Supreme Court of the Philippines, Second Division, 12 September 2008, Case summary.

  409. 409.

    Idem.

  410. 410.

    Republic of the Philippines v. Jennifer Cagandahan, Supreme Court of the Philippines, Second Division, 12 September 2008.

  411. 411.

    Idem.

  412. 412.

    Idem.

  413. 413.

    Idem.

  414. 414.

    Scientists have not yet concluded if “gender dysphoria” is a purely biological matter: “Two decades of brain research have provided hints of a biological origin to being transgender, but no irrefutable conclusions.” See Reuters, “Born this way? Researchers explore the science of gender identity” and Online Psychology “How Does Science Explain Transgenderism?”.

  415. 415.

    See ILGA, “State-Sponsored Homophobia A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalization, protection and recognition”, 11th Edition, Updated to October 2016 and ILGA: Carroll Aengus and Mendos Lucas Ramón “State Sponsored Homophobia 2017: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition”, 2017.

  416. 416.

    Previously, Article 8 (f) of Decree 87/2001/ND-CP stipulated that “a fine between VND 100,000 and 500,000 shall be imposed for…marriage between persons of the same sex”.

  417. 417.

    Article 10 of The Marriage and Family Law, No. 22/2000/QH10 of June, 2000.

  418. 418.

    Viet Nam Civil Code No. 91/2015/QH13 of November 24, 2015.

  419. 419.

    Human Rights Watch, “Vietnam: Positive Step for Transgender Rights Vietnamese parliament adopts new transgender legislation”.

  420. 420.

    Idem.

  421. 421.

    The Institute for Studies of Society, Economics and Environment (iSEE) that operates in Viet Nam mentions in its website under the section “10 things you need to know about the recognition of transgender rights in Viet Nam”: “1. Who is obligated for the sex change? The new Civil Code has two articles: Redefine sex (Article 36) and Sex change (Article 37). Redefine sex applies to people who are born not clearly male or female (intersex people) and sex change applies to those wishing to change their sex assigned at birth. So, basically, any people can change their sexes as they wish”.

  422. 422.

    Intersex Human Rights Australia (IHRA), “Intersex people and marriage, an analysis by Gina Wilson”.

  423. 423.

    Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions, 2016, p. 80.

  424. 424.

    Intersex Human Rights Australia (IHRA), “Intersex people and marriage, an analysis by Gina Wilson”.

  425. 425.

    Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions, 2016, p. 80.

  426. 426.

    Baby ‘A’ (suing through the Mother E.A.) & another v. Attorney General & 6 others [2014] eKLR, petition no. 266 of 2013, para. 66.

  427. 427.

    Idem.

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Pikramenou, N. (2019). Towards Intersex Legal Protection Beyond Europe. In: Intersex Rights. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27554-9_3

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