Abstract
Since the 1990s there has been a rapid growth in the proliferation of an increasingly diverse range of technologies which are often primarily intended to monitor human activity, and determine (or verify) the identity of the individual. Despite the intrusive nature of such systems and the ways in which they have impacted on a range of privacies, their large-scale deployment has raised little public concern. Here we focus on camera-based surveillance together with a range of biometric techniques (and include discussion on RFID technologies). Why, for example, has the British public (who have traditionally placed such value on privacy) been willing to accept (and often welcome) an endemic level of public space surveillance— whereas other European countries have been far more reluctant to follow this route? Similarly why have so many people been willing to provide biometric data to governments and other organisations? What are the risks of current approaches and the dangers that are associated with the ongoing development of sophisticated and automated surveillance systems?
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Notes
- 1.
Blundell, Q., ‘Collected Works’ (2020).
- 2.
‘Closed Circuit Television’, an acronym which dates back to the early days of camera-based surveillance systems.
- 3.
Attributed to Edward Snowden (see Sect. 3.7).
- 4.
The article quoted above solicited a large reader response—with one person amusingly commenting: ‘Who cares if GCHQ have been reading my emails. Meta data is no big deal. I have nothing to hide. It’s not like they’re peering into my home when I’m naked or anything…. Oh.’
- 5.
Attributed to Stephen Colbert.
- 6.
Also quoted in the Berkman Center Report (2016).
- 7.
Kafka (1925).
- 8.
Attributed to Tony Porter UK Surveillance Watchdog. Quoted in BBC (2015).
- 9.
These are indicative—see Barrett (2013) for further details.
- 10.
Synectic Systems produce integrated end-to-end security solutions and are therefore involved in the deployment of CCTV systems.
- 11.
Bradbury (1954).
- 12.
In fact in passive mode, some body cameras still continuously record—but buffer content so that it is overwritten after a defined period (e.g. 30 seconds). When the camera is switched to active mode, the recording that is then made incorporates the recently buffered content (e.g. the previous 30 seconds).
- 13.
Siddique (2009).
- 14.
Satire VI, lines 347–348.
- 15.
Also see Hern (2017) for brief summary discussion.
- 16.
Attributed to Frederick Brooks and quoted in Burdea (1996).
- 17.
The basic optical technique is also used in the Teleprompter (Autocue) system that was introduced in the 1950s.
- 18.
In fact bomber-based IFF transponders posed a double peril—not only because the technology identified Allied aircraft to the Nazi’s, but also because of its non-ethical exploitation by Bomber Command. As early as 1941 they had been warned of the serious dangers that could be posed by IFF transmissions. Had logical argument prevailed, the IFF systems would only have been turned on during the final part of a mission—as returning Allied planes approached the British coastline. However in his book, ‘Most Secret War’ (1978), senior scientist of that era Professor R. V. Jones recalls a meeting that took place in September 1941 concerning this issue. He writes:
‘To my amazement Cheshire and his fellow pilots stated their belief in the efficacy of using IFF to jam searchlights [which were assumed to be under radar control], and my rational arguments failed to prevail.’ (Jones 1978)
Despite the strong warnings of a senior scientist involved in electronic warfare, Bomber Command decided not to discourage the practice of leaving IFF equipment turned on throughout bombing missions. Indeed they went further and required that additional circuitry be fitted to aircraft. This resulted in the so-called ‘J-switch’ (‘J’ for jamming) which was used to cause an IFF set to regularly broadcast a signal (every 12 seconds), even when no incoming radar signal had been detected. There was no scientific basis for the expectation that these regular transmissions could have any jamming effect, and as indicated above Bomber Command had been warned of the possible dangers posed by regular aircraft transmissions. Some may believe that their decision could be justified on the basis of the philosophy of Utilitarianism whereas others may view it as a callous and ethically unsound act:
‘… in 1942 there was no sign that the Germans were utilizing our IFF transmissions. This conclusion was doubtless correct, but its implication was that although it was of no use, it encouraged crews to press home attacks in defended areas where the flak was so intense that they might otherwise have stopped short.’ (Jones 1978)
At that time crews well appreciated that their survival was not necessarily based on skill; much depended on good luck. The constant question was how to beat the odds, and under such circumstances and when faced with extreme stress an element of superstition often came to the fore. To fly without a precious talisman or to break routine in the hours leading up to a mission was to court disaster. Anything that could raise the hope of personal survival became an essential part of daily life.
And so it was with the J-switch – Bomber Command might have done better to distribute rabbits’ feet to all concerned. However by early 1944, intercepted German Enigma reports provided incontestable evidence that active IFF equipment on Allied bombers was being exploited by the Germans and that, as a result, significant losses were occurring:
‘At first there was some disbelief in Bomber Command headquarters which I had accused of the immoral practice of encouraging brave men to clutch at false straws in their hour of greatest danger.’ (Jones 1978)
Finally, and somewhat late in the day, the perils posed by active IFF equipment were acknowledged:
‘At last Bomber Command headquarters was sufficiently convinced to issue orders that IFF should be switched off, and I was told that the Commander-in-Chief had sent a signal to all units flaying ‘those idiots who believe in the joss-like protection of IFF’’
Ironically, for several years Bomber Command had been quite willing to capitalise on this superstition and by doing so exposed aircrew to extreme danger. The reality of what we would now refer to as a ‘sniffing attack’ is succinctly described by Rieback et al. (2006):
‘…British Royal Air Force bomber crews mistakenly believed that their IFF systems had a jamming effect against the German Wurzburg-Riese radar system. Some bomber crews deliberately left their IFF turned on. The German air force then deployed the Freya Flamme system, which covertly interrogated the IFF transponders, to get range bearing and identification information for several RAF bombers at once.’
- 19.
For related reading see, for example, Seelig (2006).
- 20.
Subsequently known as the PositiveID Corporation.
- 21.
For example, in 2004 some 160 people employed by Mexico’s Attorney General were implanted with VeriChip RFID’s in order to control access to secure areas (Weissert 2004).
- 22.
Also see BBC (2017).
- 23.
Back in 2005 the owner of a Mercedes S-class car had his index finger cut off by criminals who were intent on thwarting the car's fingerprint recognition system (BBC News 4396831).
- 24.
Lebowitz (2000).
- 25.
Researchers have demonstrated that even the presence of posters in public spaces depicting staring human eyes can impact on behavior—see for example, van der Linden (2011).
- 26.
It is reported that the Kent Police Force who were the first in the UK to introduce this approach have now terminated its use. The BBC (2018) quoting one police source indicates that in terms of the system’s evaluation ‘What is more challenging is to show that we have been able to reduce crime with that information.’
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Blundell, B.G. (2020). Surveillance: Technologies, Techniques and Ramifications. In: Ethics in Computing, Science, and Engineering. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27126-8_4
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