Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Theoretical Approaches to Multi-Cultural Positive Psychological Interventions pp 69–95Cite as

Creating and Disseminating Positive Psychology Interventions That Endure: Lessons from the Past, Gazing Toward the Future

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

This chapter reviews the history of development of several positive psychology interventions. I use forgiveness interventions, and specifically the REACH Forgiveness intervention, as a case study. REACH Forgiveness is described in two main formats—a psychoeducational group intervention not targeted at specific events and a general do-it-yourself workbook—and also the ways it is embedded within four other interventions. These include the Hope-focused Approach (HFA) to couple enrichment and therapy; Forgiveness and Reconciliation through Experiencing Empathy (FREE) for couples; the Dual Process model of self-forgiveness; and community-based forgiveness awareness-raising campaigns, especially within close, Christian communities. I draw on personal experience at developing positive-psychology-related interventions. Lessons are extracted regarding the creation of positive psychology interventions. Speculations are offered regarding the future of positive psychology-related interventions. These modifications in intervention practice will likely involve changes in the way interventions have been developed and marketed. Online interventions and do-it-yourself workbook interventions are specifically considered regarding forgiveness. Electronic interventions have high promise, but designing them to minimize attrition can be vexing. Speculation is offered on the reasons for attrition and ways to minimize attrition in future web-based interventions. Online interventions are available to attract people of all cultures and ethnic identities, but on the other hand, they can be tailored to only a limited number of cultures at any time. This multicultural mismatch between users and interventions must be addressed. Suggestions about how to do this are offered. General guidelines for the development of interventions in positive psychology are presented.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

REACH Forgiveness:

An acrostic where R = Recall the hurt, E = Empathize with the one who inflicted the hurt, A = Altruistic gift of forgiveness, C = Commit to the forgiveness experienced, and H = Hold onto forgiveness when you doubt

HFA:

Hope-focused Approach to couple enrichment and therapy

FREE:

Forgiveness and Reconciliation through Experiencing Empathy

RCT:

Randomized controlled trial

SD:

Standard deviation

References

  • Al-Mabuk, R. H., Enright, R. D., & Cardis, P. A. (1995). Forgiving education with parentally love-deprived late adolescents. Journal of Moral Education, 24, 427–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boon, S. D., & Sulsky, L. M. (1997). Attributions of blame and forgiveness in romantic relationships: A policy-capturing study. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 12, 19–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, W. J. (1999). The application of cognitive dissonance theory in a forgiveness workshop: Inducing hypocrisy to create a commitment to forgive. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, 59, 5164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burchard, G. A., Yarhouse, M. A., Kilian, M. K., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Berry, J. W., & Canter, D. E. (2003). A study of two marital enrichment programs and couples’ quality of life. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 31, 240–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coker, B. (2016). Going viral: The 9 secrets of irresistible marketing. Harlow, England: FT Press (Pearson).

    Google Scholar 

  • Coyle, C. T., & Enright, R. D. (1997). Forgiveness intervention with post-abortion men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 1042–1045.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuthbert, A. D., Davis, E. B., Aten, J. D., Short, A., Yarborough, C. A., Lavelock, C. R., et al. (2019). Cultivating humility in religious leaders: The effectiveness of a spiritually integrated positive psychology intervention. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 5(4), 227–239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/scp0000185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D. E., Yang, X., DeBlaere, C., McElroy, S. E., Van Tongeren, D. R., Hook, J. N., et al. (2016). The injustice gap. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 8(3), 175–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enright, R. D., & Fitzgibbons, R. P. (2015). Forgiveness therapy: An empirical guide for resolving anger and restoring hope. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Enright, R. D., & The Human Development Study Group. (1991). The moral development of forgiveness. In W. Kurtines & J. Gerwirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development (Vol. I, pp. 123–152). Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Hill, P. C., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Forgiveness and justice: A research agenda for social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 337–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, S. R., & Enright, R. D. (1996). Forgiveness as an intervention with incest survivors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 983–992.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, D. B., & Wade, N. G. (2012). Comparison of group interventions to promote forgiveness: A randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy Research, 22, 604–620.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greer, C. L., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Lin, Y., Lavelock, C. R., & Griffin, B. J. (2014). Efficacy of a self-directed forgiveness workbook for Christian victims of within-congregation offenders. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 1(3), 218–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, B. J., Cowden, R. G., & Shawkey, L. (in press). Bibliography of narrative reviews and meta-analyses on forgiveness (2004–2018). In E. L. Worthington, Jr., & N. G. Wade (Eds.), Handbook of forgiveness (2nd ed.) (2019). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, B. J., Toussaint, L. L., Zoelzer, M., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Coleman, J., Lavelock, C. R., McElroy, A., Hook, J. N., Wade, N., Sandage, S., & Rye, M. (in press). Evaluating the effectiveness of a community-based forgiveness campaign. The Journal of Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, B. J., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Lavelock, C. R., Greer, C. L., Lin, Y., Davis, D. E., et al. (2015). Efficacy of a self-forgiveness workbook: A randomized controlled trial with interpersonal offenders. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 124–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammonds, T. M., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (1985). The effect of facilitator utterances on participant responses in a brief ACME-type marriage enrichment group. American Journal of Family Therapy, 13, 59–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, Q., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Griffin, B. J., Lavelock, C. R., Hook, J. N., Vrana, S. R., et al. (2014). Efficacy of a workbook to promote forgiveness: A randomized controlled trial with university students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(12), 1158–1169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, C., & Heath, D. (2007). Made to stick: Why some ideas survive and others die. New York, NY: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebl, J., & Enright, R. D. (1993). Forgiveness as a psychotherapeutic goal with elderly females. Psychotherapy, 30, 658–667.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, E. D., & Ludwig, K. (2017). Humility is the new smart: Rethinking human excellence in the smart machine age. Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holiday, R. (2017). Perennial seller: The art of making and marketing work that lasts. New York, NY: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E., & Rabbitt, S. M. (2013). Novel models for delivering mental health services and reducing the burdens of mental illness. Clinical Psychological Science, 1(2), 170–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kearns, J. N., & Fincham, F. D. (2004). A prototype analysis of forgiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 838–855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiefer, R. P., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Myers, B., Kliewer, W. L., Berry, J. W., Davis, D. E., et al. (2010). Training parents in forgiveness and reconciliation. American Journal of Family Therapy, 38, 32–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lampton, C., Oliver, G., Worthington, E. L., Jr., & Berry, J. W. (2005). Helping Christian college students become more forgiving: An intervention study to promote forgiveness as part of a program to shape Christian character. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 33, 278–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lavelock, C. R., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Davis, D. E., Griffin, B. J., Reid, C., Hook, J. N., et al. (2014). The quiet virtue speaks: An intervention to promote humility. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 42(1), 99–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lavelock, C. R., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Elnasseh, A., Griffin, B. J., Garthe, R. C., Davis, D. E., et al. (2017). Still waters run deep: Humility as a master virtue. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 45(4), 286–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Griffin, B. J., Greer, C. L., Opare-Henaku, A., Lavelock, C. R., et al. (2014). Efficacy of REACH Forgiveness across cultures. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(9), 781–793.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luskin, F. M. (2001). Forgive for good: A proven prescription for health and happiness. San Francisco, CA: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., Exline, J. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). An annotated bibliography of research on forgiveness and related topics. In E. L. Worthington Jr. (Ed.), Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research and theological speculations (pp. 193–317). Philadelphia: The Templeton Foundation Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., Pargament, K. I., & Thoresen, C. E. (Eds.). (2000). Forgiveness: Theory, research and practice. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (1995). Promoting forgiveness: A comparison of two psychoeducational group interventions with a waiting-list control. Counseling and Values, 40, 55–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., Worthington, E. L., Jr., & Rachal, K. C. (1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 321–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McHugh, R. K., & Barlow, D. H. (Eds.). (2012). Dissemination and implementation of evidence-based psychological interventions. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNulty, J. K., & Fincham, F. D. (2012). Beyond positive psychology? Toward a contextual view of psychological processes and well-being. American Psychologist, 67(2), 101–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNulty, J. K., & Russell, V. M. (2016). Forgive and forget, or forgive and regret? Whether forgiveness leads to less or more offending depends on offender agreeableness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(5), 616–631.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. (2017). Building a StoryBrand: Clarify your message so customers will listen. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nation, J., Wertheim, E., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2018). Evaluation of an online self-help version of the REACH Forgiveness program: Outcomes and predictors of persistence in a community sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 819–838.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nisbett, R. E., & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Boulder: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennebaker, J. W. (2004). Writing to heal: A guided journal for recovering from trauma and emotional upheaval. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (Eds.). (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, A., & Trout, J. (1993). The 22 immutable laws of marketing: Violate them at your own risk. New York, NY: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ripley, J. S., Leon, C., Worthington, E. J., Berry, J. W., Davis, E. B., Smith, A., et al. (2014). Efficacy of religion-accommodative strategic hope-focused theory applied to couples therapy. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 3, 83–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley, J. S., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2002). Hope-focused and forgiveness-based group interventions to promote marital enrichment. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80, 452–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley, J. S., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2014). Couple therapy: A new hope-focused approach. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press (a CAPS Book).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, S. J., Long, B., Moen, R., Jankowski, P. J., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Rye, M. S., et al. (2015). Forgiveness in the treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder: A quasi-experimental pilot study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71(7), 625–640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, S. J., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2010). Comparison of two group interventions to promote forgiveness: Empathy as a mediator of change. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 32(1), 35–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P, & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shechtman, Z., Wade, N. G., & Khoury, A. (2009). Effectiveness of a forgiveness program for Arab Israeli adolescents in Israel: An empirical trial. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 15, 415–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinek, S. (2009). Start with why: How great leaders inspire everyone to take action. New York, NY: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southam-Gerow, M. A., & McLeod, B. D. (2013). Advances in applying treatment integrity research for dissemination and implementation science: Introduction to special issue. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 20, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. M., McLeod, B. D., Southam-Gerow, M. A., Jensen-Doss, A., Kendall, P. C., & Weisz, J. R. (2017). Does the delivery of CBT for youth anxiety differ across research and practice settings? Behavior Therapy, 48(4), 501–516. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.library.vcu.edu/10.1016/j.beth.2016.07.004.

  • Stratton, S. P., Dean, J. B., Nooneman, A. J., Bode, R. A., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2008). Forgiveness interventions as spiritual development strategies: Workshop training, expressive writing about forgiveness, and retested controls. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 27, 347–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strelan, P. (in press). The stress-and-coping model of forgiveness: Theory, research, and the potential of dyadic coping. In E. L. Worthington, Jr., & N. G. Wade (Eds.), Handbook of forgiveness (2nd ed.) (2019). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Subkoviak, M. J., Enright, R. D., Wu, C. R., Gassin, E. A., Freedman, S., Olson, L. M., et al. (1995). Measuring interpersonal forgiveness in late adolescence and middle adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 641–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toi, M., & Batson, C. D. (1982). More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(2), 281–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, N. G., Cornish, M. A., Tucker, J. R., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Sandage, S., & Rye, M. (2018). Promoting forgiveness: Characteristics of the treatment, the clients, and their interaction. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(3), 358–371.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, N. G., Hoyt, W. T., Kidwell, J. E. M., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2014). Meta-analysis of psychotherapeutic interventions to promote forgiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(1), 154–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, N. G., & Meyer, J. E. (2009). Comparison of brief group interventions to promote forgiveness: A pilot outcome study. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 59(2), 199–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, N. G., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2003). Overcoming interpersonal offenses: Is forgiveness the only way to deal with unforgiveness? Journal of Counseling and Development, 81, 343–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walton, G. M. (2014). The new science of wise psychological interventions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 73–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weir, K. (2018). 2019 trends to watch. Monitor on Psychology, 49(10), 40–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr. (1989). Marriage counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr. (1998a). An empathy-humility-commitment model of forgiveness applied within family dyads. Journal of Family Therapy, 20, 59–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr. (1998b). The Pyramid Model of Forgiveness: Some interdisciplinary speculations about unforgiveness and the promotion of forgiveness. In E. L. Worthington Jr. (Ed.), Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research and theological perspectives (pp. 107–137). Philadelphia: The Templeton Foundation Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2005a). Hope-focused marriage counseling: A guide to brief therapy, rev. ed with a new introduction. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2005b). More questions about forgiveness: Research agenda for 2005–2015. In E. L. Worthington (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 557–574). New York: Brunner-Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2013). Moving forward: Six steps to forgiving yourself and breaking free from the past. Colorado Springs: WaterBrook/Multnomah.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., Berry, J. W., Hook, J. N., Davis, D. E., Scherer, M., Griffin, B. J., et al. (2015). Forgiveness-reconciliation and communication-conflict-resolution interventions versus rested controls in early married couples. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(1), 14–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., Buston, B. G., & Hammonds, T. M. (1989). A component analysis of marriage enrichment: Information and treatment modality. Journal for Counseling and Development, 67, 555–560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., Davis, D. E., Hook, J. N., & Provencher, C. (2018a). Humility. In James E. Maddux (Ed.), Social psychological foundations of well-being and life satisfaction (pp. 168–183). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., & DiBlasio, F. A. (1990). Promoting mutual forgiveness within the fractured relationship. Psychotherapy, 27, 219–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., Griffin, B. J., & Provencher, C. (2018b). Forgiveness. In James E. Maddux (Ed.), Social psychological foundations of well-being and life satisfaction (pp. 148–167). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., Perrone, K. M., Kurusu, T. A., & Jones, D. R. (1997). Strategic hope-focused relationship-enrichment counseling with individual couples. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 381–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., Hunter, J. L., Sharp, C. B., Hook, J. N., Van Tongeren, D. R., Davis, D. E., et al. (2010). A psychoeducational intervention to promote forgiveness in Christians in the Philippines. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 32(1), 75–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., Kurusu, T. A., Collins, W., Berry, J. W., Ripley, J. S., & Baier, S. N. (2000). Forgiving usually takes time: A lesson learned by studying interventions to promote forgiveness. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 28, 3–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., McCullough, M. E., Shortz, J. L., Mindes, E. J., Sandage, S. J., & Chartrand, J. M. (1995). Can marital assessment and feedback improve marriages? Assessment as a brief marital enrichment procedure. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 466–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yalom, I. D. (1985). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA

    Everett L. Worthington Jr.

Authors
  1. Everett L. Worthington Jr.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Everett L. Worthington Jr. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences, Human Performance Management Group, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands

    Llewellyn Ellardus Van Zyl

  2. Optentia Research Focus Area, North-West University Vaal Triangle Campus, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

    Sebastiaan Rothmann Sr.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Worthington, E.L. (2019). Creating and Disseminating Positive Psychology Interventions That Endure: Lessons from the Past, Gazing Toward the Future. In: Van Zyl, L., Rothmann Sr., S. (eds) Theoretical Approaches to Multi-Cultural Positive Psychological Interventions. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20583-6_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation