Abstract
The knowledge about aerodynamic actions is vitally important in many fields, such as those involving structures and transportation. Facing such issues, This chapter illustrates the experimental techniques that appeared around the end of the nineteenth century to measure aerodynamic actions, first of all the technology that represents the symbol of this discipline: the wind tunnel. It also describes the pioneering stage during which this device was aimed at every type of test, and then, the appearance of facilities specialized in various sectors, first of all those aiming to reproduce the atmospheric boundary layer, then those addressed to aircrafts, sailing boats, road and rail vehicles. The evolution of aerodynamic knowledge is overshadowed by the driving role of aeronautics. Relying on the huge impact of the first flights, it inspired an increasingly stricter relationship between theory and experimentation focusing on the study of wings and originating analytical methods and experimental techniques destined to impact on several sectors, first and above all wind actions and effects on structures and transportation.
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Notes
- 1.
The force coefficient is a non-dimensional quantity defined as \( c_\text{F} = 2F/\left( {\uprho V^{2} A} \right) \), where F is the force exerted by a fluid on a body, ρ is the fluid density, V is the relative speed between the body and the fluid and A is the reference surface of the body.
- 2.
The pressure coefficient is a non-dimensional quantity defined as \( c_{p} = 2\left( {p - p_{0} } \right)/\left( {\uprho V^{2} } \right) \), where p is the pressure at a point of the body surface, p0 is a reference value of p associated to undisturbed conditions, ρ is the fluid density and V is the relative speed between the body and the fluid.
- 3.
Whereas the flow in the wind tunnel was uniform, the actual wind showed quick fluctuations that were not detected by the Pitot tube.
- 4.
Irminger’s pressure measurements anticipated by a decade similar measurements carried out by Nipher by means of a locomotive (Sect. 7.1).
- 5.
Marey was interested in all forms of motion; he studied the heart cycle, breathing, muscular contraction and motorial coordination. This forced him to invent instruments thanks to which he is considered a pioneer of photography and cinematography. He is famous for his photographic studies about horse gallop, showing for the first time the moment when the horse has its four legs lifted above the ground, and about bird flight, an act described in such detail to become a reference point for aeronautics studies (Sect. 7.4). His books (La machine animale, 1873; Le vol des oiseaux, 1890; and Le mouvement, 1894) will arise the interest of the Wright brothers, giving an essential contribution to aviation.
- 6.
According to Irminger and Nøkkentved, the internal pressure pi in partially open buildings was:
$$ \sum\limits_{j} {A_{j} \sqrt {p_{j} - p_{i} } } = 0 $$where Aj is the area of the jth opening, and pj is its external pressure; the sum is extended to all the openings. In comparison with the formula used today to express the quasi-steady mass conservation (Sect. 8.6), the opening shape coefficient is missing. Moreover, the rule about the signs for the emission or introduction of air into the building was not defined.
- 7.
This definition is different from the one used in fluid dynamics (Sect. 5.1).
- 8.
This sentence did not appear, except in a cryptic form, in the original paper by Nøkkentved. So, it represented an anticipation, due to Bailey and Vincent, of the concepts soon to be expressed by Jensen.
- 9.
In the mid-1980s, the University of Western Ontario awarded Martin Jensen a Honoris Causa Doctorate with the “Bridge builder” motivation, “in recognition of his achievements (…) in building bridges between different fields of knowledge”. His doctorate thesis on wind sheltering was a bridge between aerodynamics and agriculture. The model law for phenomena in natural wind was a bridge between full-scale and model tests wind effects. His studies on the flight of the locusts were a bridge between aerodynamics and zoology. His book Civil engineering around 1700 (1969) was a bridge between past and present construction methods. What’s more, Jensen was an excellent civil engineer, the builder of many bridges, including the Lillebaelt Bridge.
- 10.
Jensen first evaluated the roughness length through the gradient of the logarithmic scale profile. He then determined the same quantity by comparing the evolution of the measured thickness of the boundary layer with Eq. (5.23), obtaining almost coincident results.
- 11.
\( s = \left( {v_{0} - v} \right)/v_{0} \), where v is the actual wind speed at a set height z, v0 is the speed that would exist at the same location in the absence of the barrier.
- 12.
Lilienthal is considered by many as the first man to have lifted himself above the ground on a flying device. Actually, at least five individuals flew before him: the two pilots to whom Cayley entrusted his gliders (Sect. 4.5), the French Jean Marie le Bris (1817–1872) and Louis Pierre Mouillard (1834–1897), and the American John Joseph Montgomery (1858–1911). All of them returned to the ground so scared to refuse any further flying experience; Lilienthal was the first that continued with his attempts, improving his performance [75].
- 13.
Consider a wing in uniform motion, subjected to an aerodynamic moment countered by an elastic moment. The resisting elastic moment does not depend on the speed, while the aerodynamic moment increases with its square. There is a speed, thus, above which the elastic moment is insufficient to counter the aerodynamic action. It is called critical divergence speed and the associated unstable phenomenon, of a static nature, is called torsional divergence.
- 14.
Some bibliographic sources attribute the first powered flight to other aviators [78]. In 1874, a French Navy officer, Félix du Temple de la Croix (1823–1890), put a subordinate of his on an aircraft powered by a steam engine that made small leaps along the slope of a hill. In 1884, Alexander Fedorovich Mozhayskiy (1825–1890), a Russian Navy officer, used a launching ramp near Krasnoye Selo to make a leap approximately 25 m long with a powered aircraft. Gustav Albin Weisskopf (1874–1927), a German emigrated to America, made several powered flights two years before the Wright brothers without any photographic evidence. Another German, Karl Jatho (1873–1933) made some flights with an aircraft with flat wings, a 2-blade propeller and a 10 HP engine; the first flight dates back to 18 August 1903; the longest flight covered a distance of 200 m at 3 m height without any control system.
- 15.
The chronicle from Kitty Hawk dated 18 December 1903 reported: “Mankind wished to fly since the time of Icarus. From yesterday it is a reality. On the beach of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, two bicycle builders, Wilbur and Orville Wright , made the first powered heavier-than-air craft fly”.
- 16.
Selfridge was the first victim of a powered flight. After having flown on Bell’s airplanes, he flied with the Wright brothers during an exhibition. On 17 September 1908, Flyer, piloted by Orville Wright with Selfridge beside him, crashed to the ground: Orville Wright was unharmed, but Selfridge died.
- 17.
The aileron is the moving part of the wing along the trailing edge; it is lifted or lowered to change the lift, especially at the landing stage.
- 18.
The first flights of the Wright brothers, unlike Santos-Dumont’s one, were assisted during the take-off by tail winds or by launch tracks. Their supporters countered that such devices were not used for aerodynamic reasons, but due to the nature of the ground: while the ground at Kitty Hawk and Huffman Prairie was sandy, Santos-Dumont took off from smooth and compact ground.
- 19.
Even though Aerodynamics [91] was a book dedicated to wings, Lanchester described therein a phenomenon, the “aerial turbillon”, associated with cylinders with D-shaped cross-section. When the flat face is orthogonal to a uniform flow, the cylinder developed a steady rotation around its axis, as long as the latter was triggered (Sect. 9.8).
- 20.
The Kutta–Joukowski theory envisaged that the lift coefficient was a linear function of the angle of attack (Fig. 7.44). When the angle of attack is large, the flow detaches from the wing surface and the theory fails. There is an angle of attack above which lift starts decreasing. This causes stalling.
- 21.
Lanchester was embittered for the appreciation received by Prandtl and the slight recognition to his contribution (reviewed after his death) [20]. In his Wilbur Wright Memorial Lecture at the Royal Aeronautical Society in 1927, Prandtl said that Lanchester “started working on this subject before I did and this undoubtedly led people to believe that Lanchester’s researches, as they had been expressed in 1907 in his work Aerodynamics, suggested me the principles on which the airfoil theory was based. But this was not my case. The basic ideas on which I built that theory, even though those ideas were included in Lanchester’s book, came to my mind before I saw his book. To corroborate this statement, I will point out that actually we, in Germany, were more prepared to understand Lanchester’s book when it appeared than you in England”.
- 22.
Consider a wing in a tunnel in the absence of wind, a generic disturbance originates a damped oscillation. Assume the introduction of air into the tunnel and a speed increase: the damping initially increases, then decreases. The flutter speed is the one that makes the damping nil. Actually, the wing motion is both bending and torsional. If the wing is only subjected to bending oscillation flutter cannot occur. If it is only subjected to torsional oscillation flutter is possible only if the angle of attack is close to the stall condition (and the flow is separated); this unstable phenomenon is called stall flutter. Excluding it, flutter is only possible in the presence of the coupling of at least two degrees of freedom, generally the bending motion perpendicular to the flow direction and the torsional motion. Both these motions are harmonic ones with the same frequency; all the components of the bending motions are in phase; likewise, all the components of the torsional motion are also in phase; the two components of the motion are out of phase.
- 23.
The modified Bessel functions of the second and of the first type are defined, respectively, as:
$$ I_{\upalpha } \left( x \right) = i^{ - \upalpha } J_{\upalpha } \left( {ix} \right);\quad K_{\upalpha } \left( x \right) = \frac{\uppi }{2}\frac{{I_{ - \upalpha } \left( x \right) - I_{\upalpha } \left( x \right)}}{{\sin \left( {\upalpha x} \right)}} $$where \( J_{\upalpha } \left( x \right) \) is the Bessel function of the first type (Eq. 7.9a).
- 24.
Disregarding the aileron, the lift and the moment acting on the wing because of its vertical displacement and of its rotation can be expressed as:
$$ L_{h} = \frac{1}{2}\uprho U^{2} \left( {2b} \right)C_{\text{L}} \left( {\dot{h},\ddot{h},\upalpha ,\dot{\upalpha },\ddot{\upalpha }} \right);\quad M_{\upalpha } = \frac{1}{2}\uprho U^{2} \left( {2b} \right)^{2} C_{\text{M}} \left( {\dot{h},\ddot{h},\upalpha ,\dot{\upalpha },\ddot{\upalpha }} \right) $$where CL and CM are aerodynamic coefficients that are linear functions of h, α and of their prime and second derivatives with respect to time:
$$ \begin{aligned} C_{\text{L}} &= 2\uppi \left\{ {\left( {\upalpha + \frac{{\dot{h}}}{U}} \right)C\left( k \right) + \frac{{b\dot{\upalpha }}}{2U}\left[ {1 + C\left( k \right)} \right] + \frac{{b\ddot{h}}}{{2U^{2} }}} \right\};\\ C_{\text{M}} &= \frac{\uppi }{2}\left\{ {\left( {\upalpha + \frac{{\dot{h}}}{U}} \right)C\left( k \right) - \frac{{b\dot{\upalpha }}}{2U}\left[ {1 - C\left( k \right)} \right] - \frac{{b^{2} \ddot{\upalpha }}}{{8U^{2} }}} \right\} \end{aligned} $$Bridge aeroelasticity initially made use of Theodorsen formulas, identifying the deck with a thin plate (Sects. 9.2 and 9.9). This trend continued until Robert Scanlan (1914–2001) unified the analyses (Sect. 11.1). Disregarding the inertial aerodynamic terms, he rewrote the aeroelastic coefficients as:
$$ C_{\text{L}} = kH_{1}^{*} \left( k \right)\frac{{\dot{h}}}{U} + kH_{2}^{*} \left( k \right)\frac{{b\dot{\upalpha }}}{U} + k^{2} H_{3}^{*} \left( k \right)\upalpha ;\quad C_{\text{M}} = kA_{1}^{*} \left( k \right)\frac{{\dot{h}}}{U} + kA_{2}^{*} \left( k \right)\frac{{b\dot{\upalpha }}}{U} + k^{2} A_{3}^{*} \left( k \right)\upalpha $$\( H_{i}^{*}, A_{i}^{*} \;\left( i = 1,2,3 \right) \) being the aerodynamic or flutter derivatives. For a thin plate or an airfoil, they are linked to the Theodorsen function by the relationships:
$$ \begin{aligned} & H_{1}^{*} \left( k \right) = - \frac{2\uppi F\left( k \right)}{k};\;H_{2}^{*} \left( k \right) = - \frac{\uppi }{k}\left[ {1 + F\left( k \right) + \frac{2G\left( k \right)}{k}} \right];\;H_{3}^{*} \left( k \right) = - \frac{2\uppi }{{k^{2} }}\left[ {F\left( k \right) - \frac{kG\left( k \right)}{2}} \right] \\ & A_{1}^{*} \left( k \right) = \frac{\uppi F\left( k \right)}{k};\;A_{2}^{*} \left( k \right) = - \frac{\uppi }{2k}\left[ {1 - F\left( k \right) - \frac{2G\left( k \right)}{k}} \right];\;A_{3}^{*} \left( k \right) = \frac{\uppi }{{k^{2} }}\left[ {F\left( k \right) - \frac{kG\left( k \right)}{2}} \right] \\ \end{aligned} $$In the case of bridge decks, these expressions have to be obtained through wind tunnel tests [128].
- 25.
Scruton worked at the Aerodynamics Department of the NPL from 1929. Prompted by the researches carried out by Frazer and Duncan in 1928 [124, 125], he initially devoted himself to study the added mass of the air, tuned mass dampers and flutter derivatives. Transposing his experience in aeronautics to the structural sector, he made an essential contribution to the foundation of wind engineering.
- 26.
The lift of a wing in a sudden upward flow w is given by Eq. (7.6), Ψ being the Küssner function. For any flow path, the lift is given by the convolution:
$$ L\left( s \right) = 2\uppi \uprho bU^{2} \int\limits_{0}^{\infty } {w\left( {s - s^{\prime}} \right)\Psi^{\prime}\left( {s^{\prime}} \right)\text{d}s^{\prime}} $$where Ψ′ is the prime derivative of Ψ. For an harmonic flow, the lift is given by Eq. (7.19), Θ being linked with Ψ and Ψ′ through the relationship [143]:
$$ \Theta \left( k \right) = \int_{0}^{\infty } {\Psi^{\prime}\left( s \right)\exp \left( { - iks} \right)\text{d}s} = ik\int_{0}^{\infty } {\Psi \left( s \right)\exp \left( { - iks} \right)\text{d}s} $$ - 27.
Herreshoff brought grace, beauty, speed and design innovations into yachting. He literally is to yachting as Einstein is to science and Picasso to art.
- 28.
The first historical source of surfing is contained in the log of James Cook (1728–1779), the man who discovered Hawaii islands; he told the feats of the Polynesians, described as people who enjoyed being carried by waves riding on wood boards. The surfing, banned in the age of colonisation by Calvinist missionaries because of the exposed naked bodies, made its comeback in the late nineteenth century. The credit for its diffusion goes to Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku (1890–1968), a swimming champion who toured the world for swimming and surfing exhibitions. Thomas Edward Blake (1902–1994) met Kahanamoku in 1920 and was fascinated by him. He first devoted himself to surfing in Santa Monica, and then, he moved to Hawai Islands, in Waikiki. Here, in 1931, Blake conceived the idea of equipping his board with a sail; he first used an umbrella, then implemented the 1935 solution.
- 29.
Since Edge’s Napier was faster than Jenatzy’s Jamaise Content, both Chasseloup-Laubat and Jenatzy records were little related to car aerodynamics.
- 30.
The base of the body is shaped like a wing profile; a volume, the “windshield cockpit” rested over it; and the cockpit copied the shape of a dirigible, with the difference of being located on the upper side.
- 31.
Segrave repeatedly beat the speed records on land and on water. He was the sole pilot that simultaneously held the two records. In 1926, he reached 245.149 km/h aboard “Ladybird”. In 1927 he reached 327.97 km/h aboard “Mystery”. In 1929, in Daytona Beach, he reached 372.46 km/h aboard “Golden Arrow”. In 1930 he won the water record. In the same year, he beat his own record a few seconds before overturning and losing his life.
- 32.
In 1939 the Mercedes-Benz T80 used, for the first time, vertical fins and horizontal wings with negative lift. In the same year, Josef Mickl patented a system of wings offsetting side actions. Kamm developed aerodynamic solutions to achieve car stability at high speeds. In 1947, John Rhodes Cobb (1899–1952) set the record of 634.39 km/h with Railton Mobil Special. Few years later, he died on Loch Ness while attempting to beat Segraves record on water.
- 33.
“Dymaxion” was the acronym of “DYnamic MAXimum tensION”. It indicated any project aimed at improving the living conditions of mankind.
- 34.
The previous record had been set in 1936 by a Deutsche Reichsbahn Class 05 4-6-4, which was the first locomotive to reach the speed of 200 km/h. Pennsylvania Railroad maintained its S1 steam locomotive reached a speed of 225 km/h; this possible record, however, was not documented enough.
- 35.
Ralph Budd (1879–1962), president of CB&Q, attributed great importance to the train name. He demanded that such name started with the Z letter so that the train was considered “the last word” in railway service. Unfortunately, he did not find the last two words of the American dictionary—zyzzle and zymurgy—attractive whereas he was impressed by The Canterbury tales and their description of “Zephyrus”, the “delicate and nourishing” west wind.
- 36.
Henry Dreyfuss, initially an apprentice of Bel Geddes , rejected a merely stylistic view of design, imprinting his projects through choices inspired to technical and functional aspects. Besides its locomotives, he was known for the Bell phones that invaded the USA.
- 37.
Besides locomotives, Raymond Loewy also tied his name to indelible images of cigarette packs, refrigerators, cars, helicopters, ships and logos (e.g. for Exxon and Shell), inspired to his motto, “beauty through function and simplification”. He was the designer of the Air France Concorde and of the Air Force One. At the peak of his career, over 75% of the American citizens came into contact, at least once in a day, with one of his products.
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Solari, G. (2019). Wind and Aerodynamics. In: Wind Science and Engineering. Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18815-3_7
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