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The New Culture of the Wind and Its Effects

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Wind Science and Engineering

Part of the book series: Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering ((SPRTRCIENG))

Abstract

The advent of the new science addressed in Chap. 3 provided the bases for the foundation of a renewed culture of the wind and its effects. This chapter deals with this topic by illustrating the first rational approaches to meteorology and weather forecasting, a varied set of pioneering measurements of the resistance of bodies in the air, the adoption of scales to quantify the intensity of wind and its effects. In parallel, it points out how the new culture about the wind increasingly interacted with the life of humans and their works, strengthening the dualism between the wind as a source of life and progress and the wind as an instrument of death and devastation. On the one hand, it then presents the wind exploitation as a tool for the propulsion of vessels with increasingly efficient sails, the links between wind and flight in scientific research, and the improved efficiency of windmills. On the other hand, it focuses on the appearance of a new generation of fascinating structures, on the sensitiveness of cable-supported and truss bridges to wind loading, on the indifference of the designers towards the emerging concepts about vibrations.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The reference to a column of air coming down from a storm cloud anticipated by three centuries, the studies on downbursts (Sects. 7.3 and 10.2).

  2. 2.

    Hooke also discussed the cause of trade winds and the circulatory character of the wind (Posthumous works, 1705): “the natural tendency of air to move from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure would cause winds to blow at ground level towards the equator, from which they returned poleward at a higher level, thus maintaining a constant circulation of air”.

  3. 3.

    Halley’s wind chart highlights a bizarre detail. The arrows representing the wind are limited to the ocean.

  4. 4.

    Between 1586 and 1590, the passengers of some British ships sighted, off the North Carolina coast, vortices called great spouts. In 1643, the governor of Massachusetts, John Winthrop (1588–1649), described a sudden gust, perhaps a thunderstorm front, moving from Lynn to Hampton, along a 58 km path.

  5. 5.

    In 1749, Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich (1711–1787) described the shape of a cloud from which a tornado was originated.

  6. 6.

    Further descriptions of wind in the Indian Ocean came from Joseph Huddart (1741–1816) (The oriental navigator, 1785), James Capper (1743–1825) (Observations on the winds and monsoons, 1801) and James Horsburgh (1762–1836) (Directions for sailing to and from the East Indies, China, etc., 1817).

  7. 7.

    In 1835, Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis (1792–1843) enunciated a famous theorem for the systems possessing a rotatory motion. It affirmed that the absolute acceleration is the sum of the relative acceleration, of the dragging acceleration and of the complementary acceleration; the latter corresponded to an apparent force, perpendicular to the direction of the motion, which is nowadays known as Coriolis’ force. By means of this theorem, he demonstrated that a body moving on a rotating surface, e.g. a mass of air on the earth’s surface, exhibits a trajectory curved with respect to the surface. Coriolis also introduced the 1/2 term, until then missing, in the expression of the kinetic energy; he also was the first to call “work” the product of a force by a displacement [3].

  8. 8.

    Since the telegraph had not yet been invented, Brandes constructed his first synoptic charts thanks to information he received by mail.

  9. 9.

    The concept that storms are vortex phenomena was introduced by the geographer Bernhardus Varenius (1622–1650) in Geographia naturalis (1650).

  10. 10.

    Maury envisaged two cells for every hemisphere. It was an advancement with respect to Hadley’s model, but still behind the tri-cellular Ferrel’s model.

  11. 11.

    Ferrel called western and eastern the wind, respectively, heading west and east. Today, western and eastern winds are those blowing from west and east.

  12. 12.

    To honour their discoveries, today the circulatory motions at the subtropical and intermediate latitudes are known as Hadley’s and Ferrel’s cells.

  13. 13.

    In 1916, Sir William Napier Shaw (1854–1945) called “geostrophic” the wind velocity parallel to straight isobars, at the top of the atmospheric boundary layer.

  14. 14.

    In November 1870, Increase Lapham (1811–1875) issued the first meteorological alert for the arrival of a storm on the Great Lakes [15].

  15. 15.

    Abbe coined the term “prediction” in his 1889 book (Preliminary studies for storm and weather predictions). In a 1902 book (Physical basis of long-range forecasting), he instead used the term “forecast”.

  16. 16.

    In 1872, Ley published a paper, Laws of the winds prevailing in Western Europe, in which he provided an advancement in the description of fronts. According to Ley, they entail a sudden change in the direction of the wind, accompanied by a fierce storm and an instantaneous temperature drop.

  17. 17.

    According to De Saint Venant, the sine-squared law was introduced by Ignace Gastoni Pardies (1636–1673), a Jesuit that in 1671 experimentally proved that the wind pressure on the sails of the ships was proportional to sin2 φ, where φ is the angle between the sail plane and the flow direction [55].

  18. 18.

    Thanks to ballistic experiments, Newton already knew that the concept that associated the force with the square of the velocity failed when the velocity came close to that of the sound. Newton himself provided significant contributions to the knowledge of the velocity of the sound in the air [52].

  19. 19.

    Drag (D) and lift (L) are the forces per unit length on the wing of an airplane parallel and orthogonal to the relative speed of the flow:

    $$ D = P_{\upvarphi } b\sin \upvarphi = Pb\sin^{3} \upvarphi ;\quad L = P_{\upvarphi } b\cos \upvarphi = Pb\sin^{2} \upvarphi \;\cos \upvarphi ;\quad L/D = 1/{\text{tg}}\upvarphi $$

    From these expressions, it is possible to infer that L is small for small values of φ; to fly, then, it is necessary to increase the wing area, arriving to an impossible size, or the angle φ. In this latter case, however, D grows faster than L. The ratio L/D expressing wing efficiency, therefore, decreases [54].

  20. 20.

    In 1829, Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867) published Introduction à la mécanique industrielle, where he interpreted Du Buat’s law maintaining that resistance tests can be performed in a pipe with a cross-section sufficient to contain all the fluid particles whose motion is affected by the body, and with surfaces not creating friction; the resistance of the body can be obtained from the momentum variation of the fluid between the current cross-section and the one shrunk by the presence of the body. This hypothesis was used by De Saint Venant in Sur la resistance des fluides (1847).

  21. 21.

    In 1797, Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746–1822) published Recherches expérimentales sur le principe de communication latérale dans les fluides, where he described the measurements carried out by means of an equipment by Giovanni Poleni (1683–1761). He studied fluids subjected to sudden cross-sectional changes, proving that the shrinking and diffusion due to the introduction and exit of a flow in a cylindrical pipe produced vortices. Replacing the cylinder with two truncated cone sections, the first converging and the second diverging, Venturi eliminated vortices and retained the desired velocity and pressure variations. These are essential principles for the evolution of wind tunnels, which will take place at the end of the nineteenth century (Sect. 7.2).

  22. 22.

    Beaufort defined as “hurricane” the twelfth and maximum level of his scale, attributing to this term the meaning of “exceptionally violent storm”.

  23. 23.

    Similar praises were included in the book published by Fitzroy in 1863 [43]: “Praise Beaufort, who has used and introduced this synthetic approximate estimation method through a scale expressed in numbers rather than in vague words, …”.

  24. 24.

    In 1923, Sir George Clarke Simpson (1878–1965), director of the English Meteorological Office, extended the Beaufort scale to the land; in 1926, Sir William Napier Shaw (1854–1945) reported this scale in his Manual of meteorology [11]. In 1946, the Beaufort scale was broadened up to the 17th level; the levels from 13 to 17 were used to identify hurricanes, typhoons and tornadoes. In 1951, the World Meteorological Organization added further changes to the scale. Today, specific scales are used for tropical cyclones (e.g. the Saffir–Simpson scale) and tornadoes (e.g. the Fujita and Torro scales).

  25. 25.

    Before such evolutions, perhaps from some millennia, the peoples of the Far East used a formidable mainsail, called Chinese, with characteristics—easy sail reduction, battens, the curvature of the trailing edge—subsequently introduced in the modern Western mainsails.

  26. 26.

    In 1622, the port of Amsterdam was filled with yachts as soon as it was completed. Amsterdam then proceeded with the construction of a second port reserved to pleasure craft. It was completed in 1625, but soon it was also filled to capacity, requiring the construction of a third port, opened in 1642.

  27. 27.

    There were yachts in England before 1660. The most famous were Rat of Wight, launched at Cowes in 1588, and Disdain, launched at Chatham in 1604.

  28. 28.

    Charles II was doubtlessly the father of yachting. After having brought Mary in England and won the first race, he ordered the construction of 26 yachts, including the famous Fubbs; most of them were built by Peter Pett (1630–1699), the shipwright considered as the first “yacht designer”.

  29. 29.

    In 1874, Colonel John Stevens III (1749–1838), the father of Robert Livingston, John Cox and Edwin Augustus Stevens, purchased the land where now stands the Stevens Institute of Technology. Later on, he was a pioneer of steamboats. In 1825, he designed the first American locomotive (Sect. 3.7).

  30. 30.

    The giant Great Eastern, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859) (Sects. 4.8 and 4.9) was also known for the laying of the first telegraph cable from Europe (Ireland) to America (Newfoundland), in 1865. The cable, 3700 km long, was first reeled inside three tanks in the ship hold and then was laid on the sea bottom. The event was celebrated as the eighth wonder of the world.

  31. 31.

    The Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692–1761) invented the electric capacitor around 1745 at the Leyden University. It was known as a “Leyden jar” and consisted of a glass container with its interior and exterior coated with two sheets of tinfoil. In 1746, using a Leyden jar, Franklin built the first electric machine. Continuing this research, in 1750 he wrote to Peter Collinson (1694–1768), a member of the Royal Society of London, proposing him to place a pointed metal rod at the top of a tall tower, to capture the electricity of clouds and to prove that lightning is electrical discharge. This letter was published by the Royal Society in 1751 (Experiments and observations on electricity). In the same year, this idea was put in practice by the French physicist Thomas Francois D’Alibard (1703–1799), who hoisted an iron rod approximately 12 m long on the roof of a building. The experiment was successful and was reported to the Académie Royale des Sciences of Paris. In the meantime, Franklin carried out his experiment with the kite (1752), proving that atmospheric electricity is of the same nature of the electrostatic charges previously obtained. He formulated a theory according to which electricity is a fluid that is present in the matter. He also proposed the idea, now known as the charge conservation law, that an electrical charge was never destroyed or created, but rather transferred from a material to another. Franklin also installed the first lightning rod in Philadelphia and published its description in the Poor Richard’s Almanack of 1753 (Sect. 4.1). Some sources judge Franklin’s discoveries comparable with Newton’s ones [17].

  32. 32.

    Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) noted that the specific weight of hydrogen, called “flammable air”, was lower than that of the air; he did not associate his discovery with the perspectives of balloon flight. Such perspective was understood by Joseph Black (1728–1799), professor of chemistry at the Glasgow University, who saw the possibility of lifting light containers filled with hydrogen. Neither him nor Tiberio Cavallo (1749–1809) managed to acquire such containers [80]. The same can be said of Jacques Galien , author of L’art de naviguer dans les airs (1755, 1775), who proposed to build a globe, larger than Avignon and as high as a mountain, made of “good cloth waxed on both faces, full of air lighter than usual”.

  33. 33.

    Actually, in the troposphere, up to nearly 11 km height, there is an almost constant negative temperature gradient equal to 6.5 °C for every km of height.

  34. 34.

    Brunel submitted four projects to the judging committee, chaired by Thomas Telford; Telford rejected them all, proposing a project of his own. Following the protests of the public opinion, the committee was forced to repeat the competition, naming one of Brunel’s projects as the winner. The bridge, which is still in use, is 215 m long and 9.5 m wide. Its deck is 75 m above the river.

  35. 35.

    Navier’s judgement on cable-stayed bridges was negative for three reasons: scientifically, because of the disasters occurred in England, socially, because it did not bring any economic advances, and symbolically, because it was conceived by an architect, Bernard Poyet (1742–1824), not by an engineer.

  36. 36.

    The sag f of the cable is the difference in height between its highest point (the saddle at the tower top) and its lower point (the centreline of the span).

  37. 37.

    The construction of the Forth Bridge caused the death of 47 workers, approximately 1% of the work force (4500). The chronicle of that time barely reported this, considering it a routine occurrence for this type of works [116].

  38. 38.

    Forth Bridge lost its record as the longest span in the world in 1917, when the railway bridge over the Quebec River near Saint Lawrence in Canada was completed; it was similar to the Forth Bridge with a 459 m central span [92, 113, 115, 121]. The design and work supervision were assigned to Theodore Cooper (1839–1919) that availed himself of Norman R. Mc Lure as his assistant. On 27 August 1907, Mc Lure notified Cooper that some bracings had been subject to abnormal movements. The day after, by telegram, Cooper ordered to stop the works and to wait for him. The company, which was late with its deadlines and burdened by penalties, ignored this order. On August 29, the bracings failed because of instability and the bridge fell under Cooper’s eyes, while he was arriving at the construction site: 85 workers lost their lives. After the error was corrected, the construction restarted and continued up to the lifting of the central section of the span. On 11 September 1916, during this operation, the metal cables supporting the span failed, killing 11 workers. This proved that “heavy” was not a synonym of “safe” and only the return to suspension bridges would allow overcoming longer distances (Sect. 9.1).

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  1. Department of Civil, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Polytechnic School, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy

    Giovanni Solari

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Solari, G. (2019). The New Culture of the Wind and Its Effects. In: Wind Science and Engineering. Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18815-3_4

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