Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Emergence of Invasive Fungal Infection: Diagnosis and Treatment in Humans

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Recent Developments in Fungal Diseases of Laboratory Animals

Part of the book series: Fungal Biology ((FUNGBIO))

Abstract

Fungi are a versatile group of saprophytic microorganisms that have evolved a mechanism to survive in their hosts. Infections caused by fungi are called opportunistic, as they cause no disease or mild symptoms in infected healthy individuals, but which can be fatal, life–threatening, and invasive in nature in immunocompromised individuals. In invasive fungal infections, fungi invade the deep tissues and establish themselves, where they cause prolonged illness. They pose an important health problem worldwide and are the main reason for the high rates of morbidity and mortality among immunocompromised individuals and other individuals at high risk of invasive fungal infections. Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Cryptococcus spp., and Pneumocystis spp. are the most common species responsible for invasive fungal infections. An invasive fungal infection kills about one and half million people every year. The use of antineoplastic, immunosuppressive agents, broad-spectrum antibiotics, and antifungal agents increases the chance of invasive fungal infections. Irrespective of the large amount of recent effort being made, the treatment of invasive fungal infections is very challenging, and due to limited research in this field, the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections is also a hurdle. The objective and focus of this chapter are the invasive fungal infections in humans, diagnostic methods, and future implications of treatment of these infections, which need more research in the field to facilitate the development of better diagnostic tests, therapies, and preventive vaccines as well.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Achkar JM, Fries BC (2010) Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clin Microbiol Rev 23(2):253–273

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Agarwal R, Chakrabarti A, Shah A, Gupta D, Meis JF, Guleria R, Moss R, Denning DW, Group AcaIw (2013) Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis: review of literature and proposal of new diagnostic and classification criteria. Clin Exp Allergy 43(8):850–873

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aliouat-Denis CM, Chabe M, Demanche C, Aliouat el M, Viscogliosi E, Guillot J, Delhaes L, Dei-Cas E (2008) Pneumocystis species, co-evolution and pathogenic power. Infect Genet Evol 8(5):708–726

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amaral DM, Rocha RC, Carneiro LE, Vasconcelos DM, Abreu MA (2016) Disseminated cryptococcosis manifested as a single tumor in an immunocompetent patient, similar to the cutaneous primary forms. An Bras Dermatol 91(5 suppl 1):29–31

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Anagnostou T, Arvanitis M, Kourkoumpetis TK, Desalermos A, Carneiro HA, Mylonakis E (2014) Nocardiosis of the central nervous system: experience from a general hospital and review of 84 cases from the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 93(1):19–32

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Anaissie EJ, Stratton SL, Dignani MC, Summerbell RC, Rex JH, Monson TP, Spencer T, Kasai M, Francesconi A, Walsh TJ (2002) Pathogenic Aspergillus species recovered from a hospital water system: a 3-year prospective study. Clin Infect Dis 34(6):780–789

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Badiee P, Hashemizadeh Z (2014) Opportunistic invasive fungal infections: diagnosis & clinical management. Indian J Med Res 139(2):195–204

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bellmann R, Smuszkiewicz P (2017) Pharmacokinetics of antifungal drugs: practical implications for optimized treatment of patients. Infection 45(6):737–779

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Benedict K, Park BJ (2014) Invasive fungal infections after natural disasters. Emerg Infect Dis 20(3):349–355

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bicanic T, Wood R, Meintjes G, Rebe K, Brouwer A, Loyse A, Bekker LG, Jaffar S, Harrison T (2008) High-dose amphotericin B with flucytosine for the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in HIV-infected patients: a randomized trial. Clin Infect Dis 47(1):123–130

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bisha B, Kim HJ, Brehm-Stecher BF (2011) Improved DNA-FISH for cytometric detection of Candida spp. J Appl Microbiol 110(4):881–892

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bose I, Reese AJ, Ory JJ, Janbon G, Doering TL (2003) A yeast under cover: the capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 2(4):655–663

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boutboul F, Alberti C, Leblanc T, Sulahian A, Gluckman E, Derouin F, Ribaud P (2002) Invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: increasing antigenemia is associated with progressive disease. Clin Infect Dis 34(7):939–943

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brouwer AE, Rajanuwong A, Chierakul W, Griffin GE, Larsen RA, White NJ, Harrison TS (2004) Combination antifungal therapies for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomised trial. Lancet 363(9423):1764–1767

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown GD, Denning DW, Gow NA, Levitz SM, Netea MG, White TC (2012) Hidden killers: human fungal infections. Sci Transl Med 4(165):165rv113

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caillot D, Casasnovas O, Bernard A, Couaillier JF, Durand C, Cuisenier B, Solary E, Piard F, Petrella T, Bonnin A, Couillault G, Dumas M, Guy H (1997) Improved management of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients using early thoracic computed tomographic scan and surgery. J Clin Oncol 15(1):139–147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caillot D, Mannone L, Cuisenier B, Couaillier JF (2001) Role of early diagnosis and aggressive surgery in the management of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 7(Suppl 2):54–61

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capewell S, Chapman BJ, Alexander F, Greening AP, Crompton GK (1989) Corticosteroid treatment and prognosis in pulmonary eosinophilia. Thorax 44(11):925–929

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chotmongkol V, Jitpimolmard S (1992) Itraconazole in the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis. J Med Assoc Thail 75(2):85–88

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Benjamin DK Jr, Steinbach WJ, Smith PB (2006) Anidulafungin: a new echinocandin for the treatment of fungal infections. Drugs Today (Barc) 42(8):533–544

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cornely OA, Maertens J, Bresnik M, Ebrahimi R, Ullmann AJ, Bouza E, Heussel CP, Lortholary O, Rieger C, Boehme A, Aoun M, Horst HA, Thiebaut A, Ruhnke M, Reichert D, Vianelli N, Krause SW, Olavarria E, Herbrecht R, AmBiLoad Trial Study G (2007) Liposomal amphotericin B as initial therapy for invasive mold infection: a randomized trial comparing a high-loading dose regimen with standard dosing (AmBiLoad trial). Clin Infect Dis 44(10):1289–1297

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutshaw D, Premji A, Pagadala P, Giamberardino C, McCabe A, Lad SP, Perfect JR (2016) A novel therapeutic approach for cryptococcal meningitis. Open Forum Infect Dis 3(suppl_1):1643–1643

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Day JN, Chau TTH, Wolbers M, Mai PP, Dung NT, Mai NH, Phu NH, Nghia HD, Phong ND, Thai CQ, Thai LH, Chuong LV, Sinh DX, Duong VA, Hoang TN, Diep PT, Campbell JI, Sieu TPM, Baker SG, Chau NVV, Hien TT, Lalloo DG, Farrar JJ (2013) Combination antifungal therapy for cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med 368(14):1291–1302

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • de Gans J, Portegies P, Tiessens G, Eeftinck Schattenkerk JK, van Boxtel CJ, van Ketel RJ, Stam J (1992) Itraconazole compared with amphotericin B plus flucytosine in AIDS patients with cryptococcal meningitis. AIDS 6(2):185–190

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deepa A, Nair BJ, Sivakumar T, Joseph AP (2014) Uncommon opportunistic fungal infections of oral cavity: a review. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol 18(2):235–243

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dromer F, Bernede-Bauduin C, Guillemot D, Lortholary O, French Cryptococcosis Study G (2008) Major role for amphotericin B-flucytosine combination in severe cryptococcosis. PLoS One 3(8):e2870

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elizabeth SB, Eric Y, Graeme NF (2015) Combination antifungal therapy: when, where, and why. Curr Clin Microbiol Rep 2(2):67–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enoch DA, Ludlam HA, Brown NM (2006) Invasive fungal infections: a review of epidemiology and management options. J Med Microbiol 55(Pt 7):809–818

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esteves F, Lee CH, de Sousa B, Badura R, Seringa M, Fernandes C, Gaspar JF, Antunes F, Matos O (2014) (1-3)-beta-D-glucan in association with lactate dehydrogenase as biomarkers of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PcP) in HIV-infected patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 33(7):1173–1180

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gago S, Overton NLD, Ben-Ghazzi N, Novak-Frazer L, Read ND, Denning DW, Bowyer P (2018) Lung colonization by Aspergillus fumigatus is controlled by ZNF77. Nat Commun 9(1):3835

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gamaletsou MN, Sipsas NV, Kontoyiannis DP, Tsiakalos A, Kontos AN, Stefanou I, Kordossis T (2012) Successful salvage therapy of refractory HIV-related cryptococcal meningitis with the combination of liposomal amphotericin B, voriconazole, and recombinant interferon-gamma. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 74(4):409–411

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ganguly S, Mitchell AP (2011) Mucosal biofilms of Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol 14(4):380–385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Garnacho-Montero J, Amaya-Villar R, Ortiz-Leyba C, Leon C, Alvarez-Lerma F, Nolla-Salas J, Iruretagoyena JR, Barcenilla F (2005) Isolation of Aspergillus spp. from the respiratory tract in critically ill patients: risk factors, clinical presentation and outcome. Crit Care 9(3):R191–R199

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ghannoum MA, Kuhn DM (2002) Voriconazole-better chances for patients with invasive mycoses. Eur J Med Res 7(5):242–256

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guarner J, Brandt ME (2011) Histopathologic diagnosis of fungal infections in the 21st century. Clin Microbiol Rev 24(2):247–280

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond SP, Bialek R, Milner DA, Petschnigg EM, Baden LR, Marty FM (2011) Molecular methods to improve diagnosis and identification of mucormycosis. J Clin Microbiol 49(6):2151–2153

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hartwick RW, Batsakis JG (1991) Sinus aspergillosis and allergic fungal sinusitis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 100(5 Pt 1):427–430

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Held J, Koch MS, Reischl U, Danner T, Serr A (2011) Serum (1 –> 3)-beta-D-glucan measurement as an early indicator of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia and evaluation of its prognostic value. Clin Microbiol Infect 17(4):595–602

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, Bennett JE, Greene RE, Oestmann JW, Kern WV, Marr KA, Ribaud P, Lortholary O, Sylvester R, Rubin RH, Wingard JR, Stark P, Durand C, Caillot D, Thiel E, Chandrasekar PH, Hodges MR, Schlamm HT, Troke PF, de Pauw B, Invasive Fungal Infections Group of the European Organisation for R, Treatment of C, the Global Aspergillus Study G (2002) Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med 347(6):408–415

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hope W, Natarajan P, Goodwin L (2013) Invasive fungal infections. Clin Med (Lond) 13(5):507–510

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horn F, Heinekamp T, Kniemeyer O, Pollmacher J, Valiante V, Brakhage AA (2012) Systems biology of fungal infection. Front Microbiol 3:108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ibrahim AS, Spellberg B, Walsh TJ, Kontoyiannis DP (2012) Pathogenesis of mucormycosis. Clin Infect Dis 54(Suppl 1):S16–S22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson LB, Kauffman CA (2003) Voriconazole: a new triazole antifungal agent. Clin Infect Dis 36(5):630–637

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koulenti D, Garnacho-Montero J, Blot S (2014) Approach to invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients. Curr Opin Infect Dis 27(2):174–183

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lain A, Elguezabal N, Brena S, Garcia-Ruiz JC, Del Palacio A, Moragues MD, Ponton J (2007) Diagnosis of invasive candidiasis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using the N-terminal fragment of Candida albicans hyphal wall protein 1. BMC Microbiol 7:35

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen RA, Leal MA, Chan LS (1990) Fluconazole compared with amphotericin B plus flucytosine for cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 113(3):183–187

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latge JP (1999) Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 12(2):310–350

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li H, Huang H, He H (2016) Successful treatment of severe Pneumocystis pneumonia in an immunosuppressed patient using caspofungin combined with clindamycin: a case report and literature review. BMC Pulm Med 16(1):144

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Limper AH, Knox KS, Sarosi GA, Ampel NM, Bennett JE, Catanzaro A, Davies SF, Dismukes WE, Hage CA, Marr KA, Mody CH, Perfect JR, Stevens DA, American Thoracic Society Fungal Working G (2011) An official American Thoracic Society statement: treatment of fungal infections in adult pulmonary and critical care patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 183(1):96–128

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lobo ML, Esteves F, de Sousa B, Cardoso F, Cushion MT, Antunes F, Matos O (2013) Therapeutic potential of caspofungin combined with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis pneumonia: a pilot study in mice. PLoS One 8(8):e70619

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marr KA, Balajee SA, McLaughlin L, Tabouret M, Bentsen C, Walsh TJ (2004a) Detection of galactomannan antigenemia by enzyme immunoassay for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: variables that affect performance. J Infect Dis 190(3):641–649

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marr KA, Boeckh M, Carter RA, Kim HW, Corey L (2004b) Combination antifungal therapy for invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 39(6):797–802

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maskarinec SA, Johnson MD, Perfect JR (2016) Genetic susceptibility to fungal infections: what is in the genes? Curr Clin Microbiol Rep 3(2):81–91

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Massard G, Roeslin N, Wihlm JM, Dumont P, Witz JP, Morand G (1992) Pleuropulmonary aspergilloma: clinical spectrum and results of surgical treatment. Ann Thorac Surg 54(6):1159–1164

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mirhendi SH, Makimura K (2003) PCR- detection of Candida albicans in blood using a new primer pair to diagnosis of systemic candidiasis. Iran J Public Health 32(1):1–5

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammadi H, Sadeghi S, Zandi S (2015) Central nervous system aspergilloma in an immunocompetent patient: acase report. Iran J Public Health 44(6):869–872

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Morrell M, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH (2005) Delaying the empiric treatment of Candida bloodstream infection until positive blood culture results are obtained: a potential risk factor for hospital mortality. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49(9):3640–3645

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nobile CJ, Johnson AD (2015) Candida albicansbiofilms and human disease. Annu Rev Microbiol 69:71–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oladele RO, Bongomin F, Gago S, Denning DW (2017) HIV-associated cryptococcal disease in resource-limited settings: acase for “prevention is better than cure”? J Fungi (Basel) 3(4):67

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pappas PG, Rotstein CM, Betts RF, Nucci M, Talwar D, De Waele JJ, Vazquez JA, Dupont BF, Horn DL, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Reboli AC, Suh B, Digumarti R, Wu C, Kovanda LL, Arnold LJ, Buell DN (2007) Micafungin versus caspofungin for treatment of candidemia and other forms of invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 45(7):883–893

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, Benjamin DK Jr, Calandra TF, Edwards JE Jr, Filler SG, Fisher JF, Kullberg BJ, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Reboli AC, Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD, Infectious Diseases Society of A (2009) Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 48(5):503–535

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perfect JR, Bicanic T (2015) Cryptococcosis diagnosis and treatment: What do we know now. Fungal Genet Biol 78:49–54

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, Goldman DL, Graybill JR, Hamill RJ, Harrison TS, Larsen RA, Lortholary O, Nguyen MH, Pappas PG, Powderly WG, Singh N, Sobel JD, Sorrell TC (2010) Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america. Clin Infect Dis 50(3):291–322

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Person AK, Kontoyiannis DP, Alexander BD (2010) Fungal infections in transplant and oncology patients. Infect Dis Clin N Am 24(2):439–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters BM, Jabra-Rizk MA, Scheper MA, Leid JG, Costerton JW, Shirtliff ME (2010) Microbial interactions and differential protein expression in Staphylococcus aureus–Candida albicans dual-species biofilms. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 59(3):493–503

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ (2007) Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev 20(1):133–163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pitisuttithum P, Negroni R, Graybill JR, Bustamante B, Pappas P, Chapman S, Hare RS, Hardalo CJ (2005) Activity of posaconazole in the treatment of central nervous system fungal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 56(4):745–755

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prabhu RM, Patel R (2004) Mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis: a review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. Clin Microbiol Infect 10(Suppl 1):31–47

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prieto D, Pla J (2015) Distinct stages during colonization of the mouse gastrointestinal tract by Candida albicans. Front Microbiol 6:792

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ramana KV, Sabitha K, Venkata BP, Sharada CV, Ratna R, Ratna M, Sanjeev DR (2013) Invasive fungal infections: a comprehensive review. Am J Infect Dis Microbiol 1(4):64–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Ravikumar S, Win MS, Chai LY (2015) Optimizing outcomes in immunocompromised hosts: understanding the role of immunotherapy in invasive fungal diseases. Front Microbiol 6:1322

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg M, Patterson R, Roberts M, Wang J (1978) The assessment of immunologic and clinical changes occurring during corticosteroid therapy for allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Am J Med 64(4):599–606

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruping MJ, Vehreschild JJ, Cornely OA (2008) Patients at high risk of invasive fungal infections: when and how to treat. Drugs 68(14):1941–1962

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sambatakou H, Dupont B, Lode H, Denning DW (2006) Voriconazole treatment for subacute invasive and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. Am J Med 119(6):527 e517–527 e524

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schildgen V, Mai S, Khalfaoui S, Lusebrink J, Pieper M, Tillmann RL, Brockmann M, Schildgen O (2014) Pneumocystis jirovecii can be productively cultured in differentiated CuFi-8 airway cells. MBio 5(3):e01186–e01114

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmiedel Y, Zimmerli S (2016) Common invasive fungal diseases: an overview of invasive candidiasis, aspergillosis, cryptococcosis, and Pneumocystis pneumonia. Swiss Med Wkly 146:w14281

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sethi P, Saluja R, Jindal N, Singh V (2012) Invasive aspergillosis in an immunocompetent host. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol 16(2):297–300

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shahi M, Ayatollahi Mousavi SA, Nabili M, Aliyali M, Khodavaisy S, Badali H (2015) Aspergillus colonization in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Med Mycol 1(3):45–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui AA, Brouwer AE, Wuthiekanun V, Jaffar S, Shattock R, Irving D, Sheldon J, Chierakul W, Peacock S, Day N, White NJ, Harrison TS (2005) IFN-gamma at the site of infection determines rate of clearance of infection in cryptococcal meningitis. J Immunol 174(3):1746–1750

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skiada A, Lanternier F, Groll AH, Pagano L, Zimmerli S, Herbrecht R, Lortholary O, Petrikkos GL, European Conference on Infections in L (2013) Diagnosis and treatment of mucormycosis in patients with hematological malignancies: guidelines from the 3rd European Conference on Infections in Leukemia (ECIL 3). Haematologica 98(4):492–504

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sloan DJ, Parris V (2014) Cryptococcal meningitis: epidemiology and therapeutic options. Clin Epidemiol 6:169–182

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sokulska M, Kicia M, Wesolowska M, Hendrich AB (2015) Pneumocystis jirovecii–from a commensal to pathogen: clinical and diagnostic review. Parasitol Res 114(10):3577–3585

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Soltanzadeh H, Wychulis AR, Sadr F, Bolanowski PJ, Neville WE (1977) Surgical treatment of pulmonary aspergilloma. Ann Surg 186(1):13–16

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sowden E, Carmichael AJ (2004) Autoimmune inflammatory disorders, systemic corticosteroids and pneumocystis pneumonia: a strategy for prevention. BMC Infect Dis 4:42

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spanakis EK, Aperis G, Mylonakis E (2006) New agents for the treatment of fungal infections: clinical efficacy and gaps in coverage. Clin Infect Dis 43(8):1060–1068

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spellberg B, Ibrahim AS (2010) Recent advances in the treatment of mucormycosis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 12(6):423–429

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spellberg B, Edwards J Jr, Ibrahim A (2005) Novel perspectives on mucormycosis: pathophysiology, presentation, and management. Clin Microbiol Rev 18(3):556–569

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer M, Robbins N, Wright GD (2017) Combinatorial strategies for combating invasive fungal infections. Virulence 8(2):169–185

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens DA, Kan VL, Judson MA, Morrison VA, Dummer S, Denning DW, Bennett JE, Walsh TJ, Patterson TF, Pankey GA (2000) Practice guidelines for diseases caused by Aspergillus. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 30(4):696–709

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamgadge AP, Mengi R, Tamgadge S, Bhalerao SS (2012) Chronic invasive aspergillosis of paranasal sinuses: a case report with review of literature. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol 16(3):460–464

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tang CM, Cohen J (1992) Diagnosing fungal infections in immunocompromised hosts. J Clin Pathol 45(1):1–5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tedder M, Spratt JA, Anstadt MP, Hegde SS, Tedder SD, Lowe JE (1994) Pulmonary mucormycosis: results of medical and surgical therapy. Ann Thorac Surg 57(4):1044–1050

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas CF Jr, Limper AH (2004) Pneumocystis pneumonia. N Engl J Med 350(24):2487–2498

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson GR 3rd, Rendon A, Ribeiro Dos Santos R, Queiroz-Telles F, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Azie N, Maher R, Lee M, Kovanda L, Engelhardt M, Vazquez JA, Cornely OA, Perfect JR (2016) Isavuconazole treatment of cryptococcosis and dimorphic mycoses. Clin Infect Dis 63(3):356–362

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Uflacker R, Kaemmerer A, Picon PD, Rizzon CF, Neves CM, Oliveira ES, Oliveira ME, Azevedo SN, Ossanai R (1985) Bronchial artery embolization in the management of hemoptysis: technical aspects and long-term results. Radiology 157(3):637–644

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe F, Ballantine SP, Delves CJ (1993) The multifunctional folic acid synthesis fas gene of Pneumocystis carinii encodes dihydroneopterin aldolase, hydroxymethyldihydropterin pyrophosphokinase and dihydropteroate synthase. Eur J Biochem 216(2):449–458

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh TJ, Anaissie EJ, Denning DW, Herbrecht R, Kontoyiannis DP, Marr KA, Morrison VA, Segal BH, Steinbach WJ, Stevens DA, van Burik JA, Wingard JR, Patterson TF, Infectious Diseases Society of A (2008) Treatment of aspergillosis: clinical practice guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 46(3):327–360

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JL, Patterson R, Roberts M, Ghory AC (1979) The management of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 120(1):87–92

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yanagisawa E, Friedman S, Kundargi RS, Smith HW (1977) Rhinocerebral phycomycosis. Laryngoscope 87(8):1319–1335

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yao ZW, Lu X, Shen C, Lin DF (2014) Comparison of flucytosine and fluconazole combined with amphotericin B for the treatment of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 33(8):1339–1344

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yao Y, Zhang JT, Yan B, Gao T, Xing XW, Tian CL, Huang XS, Yu SY (2015) Voriconazole: a novel treatment option for cryptococcal meningitis. Infect Dis (Lond) 47(10):694–700

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu VL, Muder RR, Poorsattar A (1986) Significance of isolation of Aspergillus from the respiratory tract in diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Results from a three-year prospective study. Am J Med 81(2):249–254

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zago CE, Silva S, Sanita PV, Barbugli PA, Dias CM, Lordello VB, Vergani CE (2015) Dynamics of biofilm formation and the interaction between Candida albicans and methicillin-susceptible (MSSA) and -resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). PLoS One 10(4):e0123206

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zaragoza O, Casadevall A (2004) Experimental modulation of capsule size in Cryptococcus neoformans. Biol Proced Online 6:10–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zaragoza O, Rodrigues ML, De Jesus M, Frases S, Dadachova E, Casadevall A (2009) The capsule of the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. Adv Appl Microbiol 68:133–216

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biophysics, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India

    Ravindra Kumar

  2. Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

    Rajrani Ruhel

Authors
  1. Ravindra Kumar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rajrani Ruhel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoology, Sri Avadh Raj Singh Smarak Degree College, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Gonda, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Arti Gupta

  2. Department of Zoology, K.S. Saket P.G. College, Ayonda, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Nagendra Pratap Singh

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Kumar, R., Ruhel, R. (2019). Emergence of Invasive Fungal Infection: Diagnosis and Treatment in Humans. In: Gupta, A., Singh, N. (eds) Recent Developments in Fungal Diseases of Laboratory Animals. Fungal Biology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18586-2_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation