Skip to main content

Introduction: Traditional Resource Management and Hoʻokumu (Beginnings)

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Tradition-Based Natural Resource Management

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Natural Resource Management ((PSNRM))

  • 204 Accesses

Abstract

Many indigenous groups around the world continue to value the pursuit, use, and management of natural resources in the present day. Jobs and cash are important in practical terms, but fish, game, and the products of small-scale agriculture contribute significantly to indigenous ways of life. For native people in the United States, social values often relate to the past, to the capacity of traditional ecological knowledge to help feed the extended family in dietary, cultural, and spiritual terms. This chapter describes the history of Polynesian voyagers who found and settled one of the most remote archipelagos on earth and who developed sophisticated means for ensuring sustainable use of land and sea. The lessons and traditional knowledge developed by so doing continue to influence use and management of natural resources in the Hawaiian Islands to this day.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 64.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anderson, A. J. (1979). Prehistoric Exploitation of Marine Resources at Black Rocks Point, Palliser Bay. In B. F. Leach & H. M. Leach (Eds.), Prehistoric Man in Palliser Bay (pp. 49–65). Bulletin of the National Museum of New Zealand, Vol. 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. L. (2016). An Isolated Tribe Emerges from the Rain Forest—In Peru, an unsolved killing has brought the Mashco Piro into contact with the outside world. New Yorker. A Reporter at Large. August 8 and 15, 2016 Issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrade, C. (2008). Hāʻena: Through the Eyes of the Ancestors. A Latitude 20 Book. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apple, R. A., & Kikuchi, W. K. (1975). Ancient Hawaii Shore Zone Fishponds: An Evaluation of Survivors for Historical Preservation. Office of the State Director. National Park Service. United States Department of the Interior, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrere, D. (1961). Summary of Hawaiian History and Culture. Hawaiian and Pacific Collection. Hamilton Library. University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaglehole, J. C. (Ed.). (1967). The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776–1780. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckley, E. M. (1883). Hawaiian Fisheries and Methods of Fishing with an Account of the Fishing Implements Used by the Natives of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: Advertiser Steam Print.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Beckwith, M. (1970). Hawaiian Mythology. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkes, F. (1999). Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management. London: Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brenzinger, M., & Heinrich, P. (2013). The Return of Hawaiian: Language Networks of the Revival Movement. Current Issues in Language Planning, 14(2), 300–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, C., Mokuau, N., & Braun, K. L. (2009, July). Adversity and Resiliency in the Lives of Native Hawaiian Elders. Social Work, 54(3), 253–261. Special Issue on Practice Perspectives with Racial and Ethnic Minorities.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bushnell, O. A. (1993). The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cachola-Abad, C. K. (1993). Evaluation of the Orthodox Dual Settlement Model for the Hawaiian Islands: An Analysis of Artefact Distribution and Hawaiian Oral Traditions. In M. W. Greaves & R. C. Green (Eds.), The Evolution and Organizational Prehistoric Society in Polynesia (pp. 13–32). Auckland: New Zealand Archaeological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cachola-Abad, C. K. (2000). The Evolution of Hawaiian Socio-Political Complexity: An Analysis of Hawaiian Oral Traditions. Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the doctoral degree in anthropology at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu. Available at http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/alumni/pdfs/2000-abad.pdf.

  • Caviedes, C. (2001). El Niño in History: Storming Through the Ages. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, G., & Anderson, A. (2014). The Pattern of Lapita Settlement in Fiji. In White, J. P. & P. Sheppard (Eds.), Archaeology in Oceania. Sydney: Oceania Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collerson, K. D., & Weisler, M. I. (2007, September 28). Stone Adze Compositions and the Extent of Anricent Polynesian Voyaging. Science, 317 (5846), 1907–1911.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conover, D. O., & Munch, S. B. (2002). Sustaining Fisheries Yields Over Evolutionary Time Scales. Science, 297, 94–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cordy, R. H. (1981). A Study of Prehistoric Social Change: The Development of Complex Societies in the Hawaiian Islands. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cordy, R. H. (2000). Exalted Sits the Chief. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, W. R. (2009, March). Pacific Atoll Living: How Long Already and Until When? GSA Today. Geological Society of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dye, T. (1994). Population Trends in Hawaii Before 1778. The Hawaiian Journal of History, 28, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Earle, T. K. (1978). Economic and Social Organization of a Complex Chiefdom: the Halalea District, Kauai, Hawaii. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Earle, T. K. (1997). How Chiefs Came to Power: The Political Economy in Prehistory. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erlandson, J. M., Graham, M. H., Bourque, B. J., Corbett, D., Estes, J. A., & Steneck, R. S. (2007). The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, the Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 2(2), 161–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finney, B. (1994). Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey Through Polynesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Finney, B. (2006). Ocean Sailing Canoes. In K. R. Howe (Ed.), Vaka Moana—Voyages of the Ancestors. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finney, B., & Low, S. (2006). Navigation. In K. R. Howe (Ed.), Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firth, R. (1936). We the Tikopia. London: George, Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firth, R. (1939). Primitive Polynesian Economy. London: George, Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firth, R. (1967). The Work of the Gods in Tikopia (2nd ed.). New York: Humanities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fontaine, M. A. K. (2012). Two Views of Ancient Hawaiian Society. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Division of the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fornander, A. (1878). An Account of the Polynesian Race, Its Origins and Migrations. London: Tribner and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazier, E. W. (Ed.). (2011). Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management in the Western Pacific. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8138-2154-2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonschor, L., & Beamer, K. (2014). Toward an Inventory of ahupuaʻa in the Hawaiian Kingdom: A Survey of 19th and Early 20th Century Cartographic and Archival Records of the Island of Hawaii. The Hawaiian Journal of History, 48, 53–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goto, A. (1986). Prehistoric Ecology and Economy of Fishing in Hawaii. An Ethnoarchaeological Approach. Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the doctoral degree in anthropology. University of Hawai‘i at Manoa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, C. (2017). Defiant Earth: The Fate of Humans in the Anthropocene. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handy, E. S. C., Handy, E. G., & Pukui, M. K.. (1972). Native Planters in Old Hawaii—Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hau‘ofa, E. (1994). Our Sea of Islands. The Contemporary Pacific, 6(1), 147–161. First published in A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands (V. Naidu, E. Waddell, & E. Hau‘ofa, Eds.). Suva, Fiji: School of Social and Economic Development, The University of the South Pacific.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hau‘ofa, E. (2005). The Ocean in Us. In A. Cooper (Ed.), Culture and Sustainable Development in the Pacific. Canberra: Australian National University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, T. (1928). Ancient Tahiti. Bishop Museum Bulletin, 48, 119–128. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, T. (1981). Provisions for Polynesian Voyages. In The Hawaiian Canoe (1st ed.). Hanalei, Kauaʻi, Hawaiʻi: Editions Unlimited Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hommon, R. J. (1976). The Formation of Primitive States in Pre-contact Hawaii. Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Anthropology at the University of Arizona, Tucson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hommon, R. J. (2013). The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Howe, K. R. (Ed.). (2006). Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, T. (2007). Rethinking Easter Island’s Ecological Catastrophe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 485–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchings, J. A., & Fraser, D. J. (2007). The Nature of Fisheries- and Farming-Induced Evolution. Molecular Ecology, 17, 294–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irwin, G. (1992). The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Irwin, G. (2006). Voyaging and Settlement. In K. R. Howe (Ed.), Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jokiel, P. L., Rodgers, K. S., Walsh, W. J., Polhemus, D. A., & Wilhelm, T. A. (2011). Marine Resource Management in the Hawaiian Archipelago: The Traditional Hawaiian System in Relation to the Western Approach. Journal of Marine Biology, 2011, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahā‘ulelio, D. (2006). Ka oihana Lawai‘a: Hawaiian Fishing Traditions. Originally published in 1902 in Nupepa Kuokoa (M. K. Pūkui, Trans. and M. Puakea Nogelmeier, Ed.). Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press and Awaiaulu Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalakaua, D. (1990). The Legends and Myths of Hawaii: The Fables and Folklore of a Strange People (R. M. Daggett, Ed.). Honolulu: Mutual Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamakau, S. M. (1976). Na Hana a ka Po’e Kahiko (The Works of the People of Old). Translated from the Newspaper Ke Au ‘Oko’a by M. K. Pukui. Arranged and edited by D. Barrere. Bernice Bishop Museum Special Publication 61. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamakau, S. M. (1992). Ruling Chiefs (Rev. ed.). Original edition compiled in 1961. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kameʻeleihiwa, L. (1992). Native Land and Foreign Desires: How Shall We Live in Harmony? Ko Hawaii aina a me na koi muumake a ka poe haole: pehea la e pono ai? Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamehameha Schools. (1994). Life in Early Hawaiʻi: The Ahupuaʻa (3rd ed.). Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kana‘iaupuni, S. M., Ledward, B., & Malone, N. (2017). Mohala I ka wai: Cultural Advantage as a Framework for Indigenous Culture-Based Education and Student Outcomes. American Education Research Journal, 54(1), 311S–339S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kana‘iaupuni, S. M., Malone, N. J., & Ishibashi, K. (2005, September). Income and Poverty Among Native Hawaiians—Summary of Ka Huaka‘i Findings (PASE Report, 05–06: 5). Kamehameha Schools, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kane, H. K. (1997). Ancient Hawaii. Captain Cook, Hawaii: Hawaii Kawainui Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kawaharada, D. (1999). Notes on the Discovery and Settlement of Polynesia. Polynesia Voyaging Society, Honolulu. Available at http://www2.hawaii.edu/~dennisk/voyaging_chiefs/discovery.html.

  • Kawaharada, D. (2004). Local Geography. Honolulu: Kalamakū Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keesing, R. (2005). Do Native Peoples Today Invent Their Traditions? In K. M. Endicott & R. L. Welsch (Eds.), Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Anthropology (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V. (1982). The Impact of the Prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian Ecosystem. Pacific Science, 36(1), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V. (1985). Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V. (1997a). Microcosmic Histories: Island Perspectives on “Global” Change. American Anthropologist, 99(1), 30–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V. (1997b). Changing Landscapes and Sociopolitical Evolution in Mangaia, Central Polynesia. In P. V. Kirch & T. L. Hunt (Eds.), Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change (pp. 147–165). New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V. (2000). On the Road of the Winds. Oakland: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V. (2010). When Did the Polynesians Settle Hawai‘i?—A Review of 150 Years of Scholarly Inquiry and a Tentative Answer. Article Based on the Keynote Address Delivered to the Society for Hawaiian Archaeology at the 2010 Annual Meeting at Wailua, Kaua‘i. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260248796_When_Did_the_Polynesians_Settle_Hawai%27i_A_Review_of_150_Years_of_Scholarly_Inquiry_and_a_Tentative_Answer.

  • Kirch, P. V., & Hunt, T. L. (Eds.). (1997). Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V., & Sahlins, M. (Eds.). (1992). Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawai‘i (Vol. 1). Chicago: Historical Ethnography. University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G. (2009). The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lepofsky, D., & Caldwell, M. (2013). Indigenous Marine Resource Management on the Northwest Coast of North America. Ecological Processes, 2(12). A Springer Open Journal.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, M., Ward, R., & Webb, J. (1973). The Settlement of Polynesia: A Computer Simulation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, C. J. (1875, July 2). Land Matters in Hawaii. The Islander, 1(18), 104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, C. J., & Alexander, W. D. (1893). The Song of Kualiʻi. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 2, 161–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malo, D. (1903). Hawaiian Antiquities (Moʻolelo Hawaiʻi). Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malo, D. (1951). Hawaiian Antiquities (Moʻolelo Hawaiʻi) (2nd ed., N. B. Emerson, Trans.). Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 2. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press (Original work published 1898).

    Google Scholar 

  • Maly, K., & Maly, O. (2003). Ka Hana Lawai‘a A Me Na Ko‘a O Na Kai ‘Ewalu: A History of Fishing Practices and Marine Fisheries of the Hawaiian Islands (Vols. I and II). Hilo: Kumu Pono Associates. Prepared for the Nature Conservancy and Kamehameha Schools.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandryk, C. A. S., Josenhans, H., Fedje, D. W., & Mathewes, R. W. (2001). Late Quaternary Paleoenvironments of Northwestern North America: Implications for Inland Versus Coastal Migration Routes. Quaternary Science Reviews, 20, 301–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGregor, D. P. (2007). Na Kua ʻAina: Living Hawaiian Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neich, R. (2006). Voyaging After the Exploration Period. In Vaka Moana, Voyages of the Ancestors: The Discovery and Settlement of the Pacific. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • NeSmith, R. K. (2005). Tutu’s Hawaiian and the Emergence of a New Hawaiian Language. Ōiwi Journal 3: A Native Hawaiian Journal. Honolulu: Ōiwi Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, P. D. (2000). Environmental Catastrophe in the Pacific Islands Around A.D. 1300. Geoarchaeology, 15, 715–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Office of Hawaiian Affairs, State of Hawaiʻi. (2014). Income Inequality and Native Hawaiian Communities in the Wake of the Great Recession: 2005 to 2013. Hoʻokahua Waiwai (Economic Self-Sufficiency) Fact Sheet, Vol. 2014, No. 2. Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peiser, B. (2005). From Genocide to Ecocide: The Rape of Rapa Nui. Energy & Environment, 16(3, 4), 513539.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poepoe, K., Bartram, P., & Friedlander, A. (2003). The Use of Traditional Knowledge in the Contemporary Management of a Hawaiian Community’s Marine Resources. In N. Haggan, C. Brignall, & L. Wood (Eds.), Putting Fisher’s Knowledge to Work. Fisheries Centre Research Reports, 11(1), 328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polynesia Voyaging Society. (2018). Available at http://www.hokulea.com/.

  • Pukui, M. K., & Elbert, S. H. (1986). Hawaiian Dictionary (6th ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rainbird, P. (2002). A Message for Our Future? The Rapa Nui (Easter Island) Ecodisaster and Pacific Island Environments. World Archaeology, 33, 436–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rollett, B. V. (2002). Voyaging and Interaction in Ancient East Polynesia. Asian Perspectives, 41(2), 182–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sahlins, M. D. (1958). Social Stratification in Polynesia. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sahlins, M. D. (1992). Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, Volume 1, Historical Ethnography (P. V. Kirch & M. Sahlins, Eds.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibert, J., & Hampton, J. (2003). Mobility of Tropical Tunas and the Implications for Fisheries Management. Marine Policy, 27, 87–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stannard, D. E. (1989). Before the Horror: The Population of Hawaiʻi on the Eve of Western Contact. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swain, D. P., Sinclair, A. F., & Hanson, J. M. (2007). Evolutionary Response to Size-Selective Mortality in an Exploited Fish Population. Proceedings of the Royal Society B., 274, 1015–1022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taonui, R. (2006). Polynesian Oral Traditions. In K. R. Howe (Ed.), Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trask, H. (2005). Natives and Anthropologists: The Colonial Struggle. In K. M. Endicott & R. L. Welsch (Eds.), Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Anthropology (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tuggle, H. D., Cordy, R., & Child, M. (1978). Volcanic Glass Hydration-Ring Age Determination for Bellows Dune, Hawaii. New Zealand Archaeological Association Newsletter, 21, 57–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • United States Government Accountability Office. (2014). American Samoa and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands. Economic Indicators Since Minimum Wage Began. Report to Congressional Committeee. GAO-14-381. Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valerio, V. (1985). Kingship and Sacrifice: Ritual and Society in Ancient Hawaii (P. Wissing, Trans.). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek, P. (1995). Why Focus on Islands? In P. Vitousek, L. L. Loope, & H. Andersen (Eds.), Islands: Biological Diversity and Ecosystem Function. Ecological Studies 115. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waihona ʻAina Corporation. (2006). Boundary Commission Data. Kailua, Hawaiʻi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, K. G. T. (2012). Rethinking the Native Hawaiian Past (2nd ed.). Series on Native Americans: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. New York and London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Glazier, E.W. (2019). Introduction: Traditional Resource Management and Hoʻokumu (Beginnings). In: Tradition-Based Natural Resource Management. Palgrave Studies in Natural Resource Management. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14842-3_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14842-3_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-14841-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-14842-3

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics