Supposed Cases of Historical Success Experiencing Significant Instability: Canada and Belgium

Kelly, Brighid Brooks

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14191-2_7

Brighid Brooks Kelly²

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Abstract

Canada and Belgium are commonly recognized as having benefitted tremendously from consociation but the cleavages which inspired both countries’ adoption of its mechanisms remain problematic. For more than 150 years, Canada and Belgium have been governed by consociational institutions and practices, which are credited with enabling elites to maintain stability and prevent their states’ disintegration. Both countries are now federations and this is not surprising considering that their potentially destabilizing cleavages involve geographically concentrated groups seeking regional autonomy. Although some predict Canada and Belgium could experience secession, substantial evidence suggests this will be prevented by overarching state-directed loyalty, desire to avoid destabilization and uncertainty, and required majoritarian consent for secession in Canada.

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Notes

1.
For instance: Barry (1975, pp. 482–493) and Horowitz (1985, pp. 575–576).
2.
Lijphart (1977, pp. 1–2).
3.
Lijphart (1977, p. 2).
4.
Lijphart (1977, p. 119).
5.
Dion (1996, p. 270).
6.
Dion (1996, pp. 270, 275).
7.
Lijphart (1977, p. 2).
8.
Lijphart (1977, p. 4).
9.
Noel (1993, p. 43).
10.
Noel (1993, p. 43).
11.
Noel (1993, p. 43).
12.
Noel (1993, p. 43).
13.
Noel (1993, p. 43).
14.
Noel (1993, pp. 43–44).
15.
Noel (1993, p. 44).
16.
Noel (1993, pp. 45, 46).
17.
Noel (1993, pp. 45, 46).
18.
Noel (1993, p. 47).
19.
Noel (1993, p. 47).
20.
Noel (1993, p. 48).
21.
Noel (1993, p. 48).
22.
Noel (1993, p. 48).
23.
Noel (1993, p. 49).
24.
Noel (1993, p. 50).
25.
Noel (1993, p. 50).
26.
Lijphart (1977, p. 125).
27.
Fournier (1991, p. 10).
28.
Fournier (1991, p. 11).
29.
Fournier (1991, p. 11).
30.
Fournier (1991, p. 11).
31.
Marshall (1998, p. 162) and Fournier (1991, p. 11).
32.
Lipset (1990, p. 1997) and Young (1998, p. 139).
33.
Lipset (1990, p. 198) and Fournier (1991, p. 22).
34.
Noel (1993, p. 58) and Young (1998, p. 139).
35.
Fournier (1991, pp. 23–24).
36.
Noel (1993, p. 60).
37.
Fournier (1991, p. 12).
38.
Young (1998, p. 141).
39.
Lijphart (1977, p. 119).
40.
Lijphart (1977, pp. 125, 126).
41.
Lijphart (1977, p. 125).
42.
Lijphart (1977, p. 129).
43.
Lijphart (1977, p. 127).
44.
Lijphart (1977, pp. 125, 126).
45.
“Prime Ministers,” “Pierre.”
46.
Dion (1996, p. 280).
47.
Lee (2005).
48.
Bliss, “Pierre.”
49.
Noel (1993, p. 57).
50.
Noel (1993, p. 57).
51.
Noel (1993, pp. 57–58).
52.
Fournier (1991, pp. 10, 60).
53.
Fournier (1991, pp. 12, 24).
54.
Geddes (2000, pp. 2, 3).
55.
Geddes (2000, pp. 2, 3).
56.
Fournier (1991, p. 135).
57.
Lipset (1990, pp. 194, 195).
58.
Noel (1993, p. 47).
59.
Dion (1996, pp. 276, 283) and Young (1998, p. 299).
60.
Fournier (1991, p. 8).
61.
Young (1998, p. 249).
62.
Fournier (1991, p. 118).
63.
& Additional poll data involving support for Quebec secession is on the website.
64.
Fournier (1991, p. 124).
65.
Fournier (1991, pp. 43, 69).
66.
Dion (1996, p. 275).
67.
Dion (1996, p. 280).
68.
Young (1998, pp. 265, 289).
69.
Young (1998, pp. 326, 328).
70.
“List of Canadian provinces and territories by population.”
71.
Lijphart (1977, p. 125).
72.
Cameron (2002, p. 108).
73.
Lipset (1990, p. 211) and Glazer (1983, p. 276).
74.
Glazer (1983, pp. 275, 278–279).
75.
& Some additional aspects of this comparison with the United States are discussed on the website.
76.
Lipset (1990, pp. 206, 209).
77.
Glazer (1983, p. 269).
78.
Lipset (1996, p. 113).
79.
Glazer (1983, pp. 98–99).
80.
Lipset (1996, p. 125).
81.
Bercovitch (1993, p. 57).
82.
Lipset (1990, p. 19).
83.
Lipset (1990, p. 52).
84.
Glazer (1983, p. 237).
85.
Lipset (1990, p. 9).
86.
Lipset (1990, p. 9).
87.
Lipset (1990, p. 53).
88.
Fournier (1991, p. 74).
89.
Fournier (1991, p. 74).
90.
Lipset (1990, p. 187).
91.
Young (1998, p. 335).
92.
“Pierre.”
93.
Marshall (1998, p. 167).
94.
Marshall (1998, p. 167).
95.
Lipset (1990, p. 46).
96.
Lipset (1990, p. 46).
97.
Strayer (1989, pp. 160–163).
98.
Marshall (1998, p. 168).
99.
Cairns (1996, pp. 1, 4).
100.
Strayer (1989, p. 158).
101.
Stewart (1997), Neufeld (1995), and Young (1998).
102.
Young (1998, pp. 96, 97).
103.
Young (1998, pp. 142–143).
104.
Young (1998, p. 293).
105.
Young (1998, pp. 98–99, 292).
106.
Fournier (1991, pp. 115, 116).
107.
Fournier (1991, pp. 112, 113).
108.
Fournier (1991, p. 86).
109.
Fournier (1991, p. 86).
110.
Fournier (1991, p. 86), “French.”
111.
Young (1998, p. 334).
112.
Young (1998, p. 147).
113.
Young (1998, p. 334).
114.
Young (1998, p. 334).
115.
Young (1998, p. 326).
116.
Dion (1996, pp. 277, 278).
117.
Dion (1996, p. 278).
118.
Young (1998, p. 327).
119.
Young (1998, p. 327).
120.
O’Neill (2000, p. 114), Castle and Erlanger (2010), and Daley (2010).
121.
O’Neill (2000, p. 117).
122.
O’Neill (2000, p. 115).
123.
Vanderlinden (1989, p. 112).
124.
Vanderlinden (1989, p. 112).
125.
Lecours (2002, p. 59).
126.
O’Neill (2000, p. 129) and Lecours (2002, p. 59).
127.
Lecours (2002, p. 61).
128.
Lecours (2002, p. 61).
129.
Lecours (2002, p. 61).
130.
De Bandt (1989, p. 140).
131.
De Bandt (1989, p. 140).
132.
Hooghe (1993, p. 45).
133.
Hooghe (1993, p. 45).
134.
Lijphart (1977, p. 78).
135.
Lijphart (1977, p. 79).
136.
Pijnenburg (1984, p. 59).
137.
Deschouwer (2006, p. 897).
138.
De Winter et al. (2006, p. 945).
139.
De Winter et al. (2006, p. 945), Deschouwer (2006, p. 896), Billiet et al. (2006, pp. 913, 920), and Peters (2006, p. 1082).
140.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 7) and Peters (2006, p. 1089).
141.
De Winter et al. (2006, p. 945).
142.
Heisler (1991, p. 179).
143.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 1).
144.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 1).
145.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 3).
146.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 5).
147.
De Bandt (1989, pp. 139–140).
148.
Lijphart (1977, pp. 1–2).
149.
Lijphart (2002, p. 41).
150.
Deschouwer (2002, pp. 71–73).
151.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 1).
152.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 36).
153.
Deschower (2004, p. 1).
154.
Deschouwer (2002, p. 83).
155.
Deschouwer (2002, p. 78).
156.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 912).
157.
Billiet et al. (2006, pp. 913, 930, 931).
158.
De Bandt (1989, p. 135).
159.
O’Neill (2000, p. 114).
160.
Hooghe (1993, p. 65).
161.
Sciolino (2007).
162.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 917).
163.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 918).
164.
& Additional details concerning the extent of this decentralization are available on the website.
165.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 15).
166.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 36).
167.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 36).
168.
Billiet et al. (2006, pp. 930–931).
169.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 18).
170.
Peters (2006, p. 1083).
171.
Peters (2006, p. 1084).
172.
Peters (2006, p. 1089).
173.
Castle (2008b).
174.
Castle (2008a, 2008c) and Sciolino (2007).
175.
Beyers and Bursens (2006, pp. 1058, 1063).
176.
Deschouwer (2006, p. 898).
177.
Deschouwer (2006, p. 898).
178.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 22) and Billiet et al. (2006, p. 914).
179.
Deschouwer (2004, pp. 17, 18).
180.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 1; 2006, p. 901).
181.
Deschouwer (2006, p. 903).
182.
Deschouwer (2006, p. 903).
183.
Lijphart (1977, pp. 44–47).
184.
Deschouwer (2002, p. 81).
185.
Church (2000, p. 98).
186.
Deschouwer (2002, p. 81).
187.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 914).
188.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 36).
189.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 913) and DeWinter et al. (2006, p. 933).
190.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 1).
191.
DeWinter et al. (2006, p. 933).
192.
Lijphart (1977, p. 82).
193.
Church (2000, p. 99).
194.
Peters (2006, p. 1083).
195.
Billiet et al. (2006, pp. 916–917, 918).
196.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 916).
197.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 918).
198.
This 1999 poll was conducted by the ISPO/PIOP. These acronyms stand for the Interuniversitair Steunpunt Politielke-Opinieonderzoek and the Pôle Interuniversitaire sur l’Opinion publique et la Politique, which are based at the Catholic University of Louvain.
199.
Billiet (2006, p. 919).
200.
Deschouwer (2006, p. 902).
201.
Hooghe (1993, p. 64).
202.
Billiet (2006, p. 930).
203.
Deschouwer (2004, p. 36).
204.
Billiet et al. (2006, p. 918).
205.
Cartrite (2002, p. 43).
206.
Lijphart (1975, p. 209).
207.
Deschouwer (2002, p. 79).
208.
Newman (1995, p. 67).
209.
O’Neill (2000, p. 133).
210.
“Discussion,” p. 151.
211.
O’Neill (2000, p. 132).
212.
O’Neill (2000, p. 132) and Fitzmaurice (1996, p. 267).
213.
Fitzmaurice (1996, p. 267).
214.
Van den Abbeele (2001, pp. 516–517).

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Andrea Mitchell Center for the Study of Democracy, University of Pennsylvania, Swarthmore, PA, USA
Brighid Brooks Kelly

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Kelly, B.B. (2019). Supposed Cases of Historical Success Experiencing Significant Instability: Canada and Belgium. In: Power-Sharing and Consociational Theory. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14191-2_7

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14191-2_7
Published: 26 March 2019
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