Abstract
This chapter focuses on another transformative scenario in which the transformation is not necessarily the result of a change in the shape of calligraphic forms, but is rather the consequence of a shift in the function of calligraphy. This kind of transformative quality, which can be observed in many specimens of Islamic calligraphy and neo-calligraphy, is called meta-transformation. First, by providing examples from traditional Islamic calligraphy, it is explained how a specimen of calligraphy may transform into an image without a change in the identity of its calligraphic forms. This is followed by an inspection of cases in which the meaning of glyphs, letters, and words transforms and becomes loaded with metaphorical and symbolic meanings, effectively becoming much more than mere linguistic signs. It is argued that in both these cases it is in fact the function of calligraphy that transforms. This chapter then examines three major functions of calligraphic forms in calligraphic art: “aesthetic,” “semantic,” and “hermeneutic.” It is argued that in many calligraphic artworks there is a tension between these three (or at least two of these three) functions, and that these tensions can appear over time in time-based media. Furthermore, this chapter proposes a general category of temporal events that may lead to a shift in the function of calligraphy. In conclusion, issues of legibility and readability are revisited as one of the consequences of the shift in the function of calligraphy over time.
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Notes
- 1.
Such calligrams are much more than simple figurative images for the Sufis and have talismanic functions in their tradition (Teparić, 2013).
- 2.
Sometimes the written text in sīyāh-mashq has meaning, since the words that appear are part of famous sayings or verses of poetry. However, even in these cases the composition and the overlapping arrangement of words usually suggests to the viewer that the piece of calligraphy is not supposed to be read as text but should rather be appreciated as an image.
- 3.
Both of these words (“semantic” and “aesthetic”) have been used by scholars to describe calligraphy’s goal of conveying the meaning of its linguistic content to the viewer and impacting the viewer visually through its formal qualities, respectively. See, for example, Blair (2006, pp. 589, 590, 611, 621).
- 4.
Aesthetic function in this book refers to calligraphy, which acts as image and is supposed to be appreciated for its formal (or visual) rather than semantic qualities. The word “iconographic,” which is used by Grabar (1992), Shabout (2007) and Wijdan Ali (1997), seems to be inadequate and perhaps confusing. While it is used by Shabout (2007, p. 67) to refer to the visual aspect of representational writing, Wijdan Ali (1997, p. 160) uses the term to refer to the mystical meaning of the isolated letters at the beginning of some chapters of the Qur’an.
- 5.
Also known as muqattaʿāt.
- 6.
- 7.
The letters of the Arabic alphabet were each assigned a numerical value in a system known as abjad, which is similar to the earlier Hebrew numeral practices.
- 8.
Ismaili Shi’ism is a branch of Shi’i Islam.
- 9.
- 10.
In this book the term “hermeneutic” is preferred instead of “connotative.” “Hermeneutic” seems to be more suitable because it not only implies the connotative meanings of text but can also include calligraphic elements or glyphs (such as the rhomboid dot) that are not actually text but can be interpreted esoterically. Therefore, hermeneutic function here refers to the function of calligraphy that emphasizes extra-linguistic meanings and needs interpretation.
- 11.
See During, Mirabdolbaghi, and Safvat (1991) for the influence of mysticism on musical arts in the Persianate world.
- 12.
Also referred to as a diacritical point.
- 13.
- 14.
Marks (2010, p. 202) reminds us that it also represents zero in the Arabic numerical system.
- 15.
For more information about the symbolism of the rhomboid dot in Islamic Sufism and mysticism see Hamedani (2014).
- 16.
The function of calligraphy in an artwork also depends on the viewer. Undoubtedly, a viewer unfamiliar with the esoteric meanings of the Arabic letters is not able to perceive latent meanings that a work of neo-calligraphy may have. For instance, the calligraphic painting by Azim Fallah (Fig. 6.4) is nothing more than an abstract painting for someone unfamiliar with the mystical symbolism of the rhomboid dot. For this viewer, calligraphy in such a painting functions only on the aesthetic level. In the same way, a viewer who cannot read Arabic script is not able to decipher any semantic meaning from neo-calligraphic artworks in which calligraphy is legible and conveys semantic content. For this person, calligraphy in such a work reduces to abstract visual elements, without any semantic function. Hence, it sounds reasonable to argue that the function of calligraphy in a work of art also depends on the level of the literacy of the viewer. While to perceive the aesthetic function of calligraphy one needs only to be visually literate, semantic and hermeneutic functions require linguistic, and extra-linguistic literacies. Having said this, it should be emphasized that the discussions presented here are based on the premise that the viewer has all these levels of literacy.
- 17.
This function gamut should not be confused with the identity gamut, which we saw in Fig. 5.7.
- 18.
The function gamut is not necessarily limited to these three extremes. Like the identity gamut, it can also be expanded to accommodate other functions of calligraphy. However, the focus here is mainly on these three functions, as they seem to be the dominant functions of calligraphy in calligraphic art. Still, as previously acknowledged, calligraphy may have other functions in an artwork.
- 19.
The full text of the verse reads as follows:
Allah! There is no deity save Him, the Alive, the Eternal.
Neither slumber nor sleep overtaketh Him.
Unto Him belongeth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth.
Who is he that intercedeth with Him save by His leave?
He knoweth that which is in front of them and that which is behind them,
while they encompass nothing of His knowledge save what He will.
His throne includeth the heavens and the earth,
and He is never weary of preserving them.
He is the Sublime, the Tremendous.
(Translation by Muhammad M. Pickthall, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0002%3Asura%3D2%3Averse%3D255, accessed on September 3, 2018)
- 20.
Although he does not refer to animation specifically and although his examples are all from live action films, he introduces these categories for film and video, which clearly may include animation. Other scholars, such as Adam de Beer (2010), have used these categories for analysis of animations.
- 21.
In many forms of animation, as in stop motion for example, there is a physical camera.
- 22.
Three dimensions in space in addition to the dimension of time.
- 23.
Author’s translation.
- 24.
Although a change in readability is logically expected when the function of calligraphy transforms in animation, this change may not take place when the function transforms from semantic to hermeneutic or vice versa.
- 25.
Translation from Franklin D. Lewis in (Rumi: Swallowing the sun, 2007).
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Khajavi, M.J. (2019). Meta-transformative Behaviors. In: Arabic Script in Motion. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12649-0_6
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