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Counter-Terrorism in France

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Contagion, Counter-Terrorism and Criminology

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Abstract

The chapter charts France’s extensive experience of counter-terrorism, including radical Islamic terrorism, prior to the Twin Tower attacks, before proceeding to an overview of post-9/11 domestic and European Union legislation. In relation to contagion, the chapter finds exceptional powers, accrued as part of the fight against terror, have been historically applied to drugs, weapons and ‘organised crime’ offences. More recently, this trend has been continued with the ‘opportunistic’ application of state of emergency search powers to drugs and weapons offences to form the majority of prosecutions resulting from the state of emergency measures.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Loi no. 86-1020 du 9 septembre 1986 relative à la lutte contre le terrorisme et aux atteintes à la sûreté de l’Etat.

  2. 2.

    Loi no. 96-647 du 22 juillet 1996 tendant à renforcer la répression du terrorisme et des atteintes aux personnes dépositaires de l’autorité publique ou chargées d’une mission de service public et comportant des dispositions relatives à la police judiciaire.

  3. 3.

    Interviews held on 3, 4 and 6 April 2017.

  4. 4.

    Loi no. 2014-1353 du 13 novembre 2014 renforcant les dispositions relatives a la lutte contre le terrorisme.

  5. 5.

    Loi no. 2015-912 du 24 juillet 2015 relative au renseignement 2015.

  6. 6.

    Décret no. 2015-1475 et 2015-1476 du 14 novembre 2015 portant application de la loi n° 55-385 du 3 avril 1955.

  7. 7.

    Loi no. 2017-258 du 28 février 2017 relative à la sécurité publique.

  8. 8.

    Loi no. 2001-1062 du 15 novembre 2001 relative à la sécurité quotidienne.

  9. 9.

    Loi no. 2003-239 du 18 mars 2003 pour la sécurité intérieure.

  10. 10.

    Loi no. 2004-204 du 9 mars 2004 portant adaptation de la justice aux évolutions de la criminalité.

  11. 11.

    Loi no. 2006-64 du 23 janvier 2006 relative à la lutte contre le terrorisme et portant dispositions diverses relatives à la sécurité et aux contrôles frontaliers.

  12. 12.

    The law was changed in 2011 (law 2011-392) so that all detainees are guaranteed access to counsel at the outset of detention but in terrorism-related cases, suspects may be held and interrogated in police custody for up to three days before having access to a lawyer. If police custody is prolonged beyond three days, the terrorism suspect has access to a lawyer every 24 hours. Each client-lawyer interview is limited to 30 minutes.

  13. 13.

    Loi no. 2012-1432 du 21 décembre 2012 relative à la sécurité et à la lutte contre le terrorisme.

  14. 14.

    Loi no. 2014-1353 du 13 novembre 2014 renforçant les dispositions relatives à la lutte contre le terrorisme, Journal officiel de la République française, no. 263 du 14 novembre 2014.

  15. 15.

    The offence had previously been criminalised by the Law of 29 July 1881, special legislation governing freedom of expression and its abuses.

  16. 16.

    Loi no. 2015-912 du 24 juillet 2015 relative au renseignement 2015.

  17. 17.

    Décret no. 2015-1475 et 2015-1476 du 14 novembre 2015 portant application de la loi n° 55-385 du 3 avril 1955.

  18. 18.

    Loi no. 2015-1501 du 20 novembre 2015 prorogeant l’application de la loi n° 55-385 du 3 avril 1955 relative à l’état d’urgence et renforçant l’efficacité de ses dispositions.

  19. 19.

    Loi no. 2016-731 du 3 juin 2016 renforçant la lutte contre le crime organisé, le terrorisme et leur financement, et améliorant l’efficacité et les garanties de la procédure pénale.

  20. 20.

    Loi no. 2016-987 du 21 juillet 2016 prorogeant l’application de la loi n° 55-385 du 3 avril 1955 relative à l’état d’urgence et portant mesures de renforcement de la lutte antiterroriste.

  21. 21.

    Loi no. 2017-258 du 28 février 2017 relative à la sécurité publique.

  22. 22.

    See Human Rights Watch (2017) ‘Urgent action needed on ethnic profiling in police checks in France’. 28 February. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/02/28/urgent-action-needed-ethnic-profiling-police-checks-france.

  23. 23.

    Décision no. 2016-611 QPC du 10 février 2017.

  24. 24.

    Loi no. 2017-1510 du 30 octobre 2017 renforçant la sécurité intérieure et la lutte contre le terrorisme—SILT.

  25. 25.

    Foucault defined this as ‘a thoroughly heterogenous ensemble consisting of discourses, institutions, architectural forms, regulatory decisions, laws, administrative measures, scientific statements, philosophical, moral and philanthropic propositions—in short, the said as much as the unsaid’.

  26. 26.

    https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52014SC0270.

  27. 27.

    Directive (EU) 2017/541 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2017 on combating terrorism and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA and amending Council Decision 2005/671/JHA.

  28. 28.

    The use of the EAW is regulated by Articles 695-11 to 695-51 of the Criminal Procedure Code.

  29. 29.

    L151-2 Monetary and Financial Code.

  30. 30.

    Loi no. 2015-912 du 24 juillet 2015 relative au renseignement, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0171 du 26 juillet 2015.

  31. 31.

    Art. 5 of act 2015-912, adding Art. L851-2-I to the Code of Internal Security.

  32. 32.

    See Marc Trévidic, former magistrate specialised in the fight against terrorism at the Tribunal de Grand Instance in Paris and president of the French Association of Examining Magistrates, commenting that ‘frankly, the Prime Minister’s room for manoeuvre is immense and the nation has no way of knowing whether something illegal will be done’ (Calvi, 2015).

  33. 33.

    Loi no. 2001-1062 du 15 novembre 2001 relative à la sécurité quotidienne, Journal officiel de la République française no. 266 du 16 novembre 2001.

  34. 34.

    Conseil Constitutionnel, decision no. 96-377 QPC of 16 July 1996.

  35. 35.

    See, for example, the 2009 study of the Open Society Justice Initiative which found that Arabs and blacks in France were eight times more likely than whites to be stopped by police (New York Times, 3 October 2013).

  36. 36.

    An article in Le Monde in September 2005 reported that over 80% of the 358 people imprisoned for terrorism offences in 2005 had been charged with association de malfaiteurs (Le Monde, 2005).

  37. 37.

    Constitutional Council Decision no. 2016-611 QPC of 10 February 2017; Constitutional Council Decision no. 2017-682 QPC of 15 December 2017.

  38. 38.

    Loi no. 2014-1353 du 13 novembre 2014 renforçant les dispositions relatives à la lutte contre le terrorisme, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0263 du 14 novembre 2014.

  39. 39.

    Loi no. 55-385 du 3 avril 1955 instituant un état d’urgence et en déclarant l’application en Algérie, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0085 du 7 avril 1955.

  40. 40.

    Loi no. 2015-1501 du 20 novembre 2015 prorogeant l’application de la loi no. 55-385 du 3 avril 1955 relative à l’état d’urgence et renforçant l’efficacité de ses dispositions, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0270 du 21 novembre 2015.

  41. 41.

    Act 55-385 limited the application of house arrest to anyone ‘whose activity is dangerous for the public security’.

  42. 42.

    Conseil d’Etat, decision no. 395009 of 11 December 2015.

  43. 43.

    Act 2016-987 of 21 July 2016, which followed the Nice attack and extended the state of emergency for the fourth time, further expanded the restrictions on freedom of assembly by reducing the justification needed by the authorities to order a ban, shifting from a system of notification to one of authorisation (FIDH, 2016).

  44. 44.

    See further Kilcommins and Vaughan (2004: 74) on the ‘metaphoric pathways’ which are often forged between terrorism and organised crime.

  45. 45.

    Loi no. 2003-239 du 18 mars 2003 pour la sécurité intérieure, Journal officiel de la République française no. 66 du 19 mars 2003.

  46. 46.

    Loi no. 2004-204 du 9 mars 2004 portant adaptation de la justice aux évolutions de la criminalité, Journal officiel de la République française no. 59 du 10 mars 2004.

  47. 47.

    Art. 132-71 of the Criminal Procedural Code.

  48. 48.

    Loi no. 2016-731 du 3 juin 2016 renforçant la lutte contre le crime organisé, le terrorisme et leur financement, et améliorant l’efficacité et les garanties de la procédure pénale, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0129 du 4 juin 2016.

  49. 49.

    Art. 706-73-1 of the Code of Criminal Procedure was introduced by Act no. 2015-993 of 17 August 2015 (adaptation de la procédure pénale au droit de l’Union européenne). It concerns: the offence of fraud in an organised gang; offences relating to illegal labour and perpetrated by organised gangs; money laundering offences; criminal conspiracy (délits d’association de malfaiteurs); inability to account for resources corresponding to one’s lifestyle.

  50. 50.

    Loi no. 2016-731 du 3 juin 2016 renforçant la lutte contre le crime organisé, le terrorisme et leur financement, et améliorant l’efficacité et les garanties de la procédure pénale, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0129 du 4 juin 2016.

  51. 51.

    Conseil Constitutionnel, decision no. 2015-527 QPC of 22 December 2015.

  52. 52.

    Loi no. 2015-1501 du 20 novembre 2015 prorogeant l’application de la loi no. 55-385 du 3 avril 1955 relative à l’état d’urgence et renforçant l’efficacité de ses dispositions, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0270 du 21 novembre 2015.

  53. 53.

    Loi no. 2016-731 du 3 juin 2016 renforçant la lutte contre le crime organisé, le terrorisme et leur financement, et améliorant l’efficacité et les garanties de la procédure pénale, Journal officiel de la République française no. 0129 du 4 juin 2016.

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  1. Department of Law, Maynooth University, Kildare, Maynooth, Ireland

    Claire Hamilton

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Hamilton, C. (2019). Counter-Terrorism in France. In: Contagion, Counter-Terrorism and Criminology. Crime Prevention and Security Management. Palgrave Pivot, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12322-2_4

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