Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Physical Activity at Adulthood and Old Age

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Sports Medicine Physician

Abstract

Adulthood and old age involve huge biomechanical changes in the human body due to natural biological deterioration that takes place slowly and progressively during lifetime. In this context, the quality of life is directly related to how prepared we are to live longer because a price should be paid for it. Nevertheless, the speed of this process could vary from person to person, according to their genetics, nutrition, social behavior (sedentarism, smoking, alcoholism), and comorbidities such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, as well as psychological impairment, reflecting on the person’s behavior. This chapter aims to discuss the effects of ageing, physical performance, sarcopenia, the senescence of the metabolic axis, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, as well as the importance of sports practice and regular physical activity in the adults and old age population. Moreover, the chapter will discuss the best strategy to design a customized plan for sports practice and/or physical activity according to the individual needs of this age group.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Hirvensalo M, Lintunen T. Life-course perspective for physical activity and sports participation. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2011;8:13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Diloreto R, Murphy CT. The cell biology of aging. Mol Biol Cell. 2015;26(25):4524–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. López-Otín C, Blasco MA, Partridge L, Serrano M, Kroemer G. The hallmarks of aging. Cell. 2013;153(6):1194–217.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. de Rezende Pinto WB, de Souza PV, Oliveira AS. Normal muscle structure, growth, development, and regeneration. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2015;8(2):176–81.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Liu CJ, Shiroy DM, Jones LY, Clark DO. Systematic review of functional training on muscle strength, physical functioning, and activities of daily living in older adults. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2014;11:95–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Papadakis M, Sapkas G, Papadopoulos EC, Katonis P. Pathophysiology and biomechanics of the aging spine. Open Orthop J. 2011;5:335–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. John EB, Liu W, Gregory RW. Biomechanics of muscular effort: age-related changes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(2):418–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Sun F, Norman IJ, While AE. Physical activity in older people: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:449. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-449.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Colón-Emeric CS, Whitson HE, Pavon J, Hoenig H. Functional decline in older adults. Am Fam Physician. 2013;88(6):388–94.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Lockhart TE, Smith JL, Woldstad JC. Effects of aging on the biomechanics of slips and falls. Hum Factors. 2005;47(4):708–29.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Iulian-Doru T, Maria T. Leisure sports activities impact on adults personal development and quality of life. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2013;84(9):1090–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Booth FW, Roberts CK, Laye MJ. Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases. Compr Physiol. 2012;2(2):1143–211.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Jaul E, Barron J. Age-related diseases and clinical and public health implications for the 85 years old and over population. Front Public Health. 2017;5:335.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Baker J, Fraser-Thomas J, Dionigi RA, Horton S. Sport participation and positive development in older persons. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2010;7:3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG. Physical activity and cardiovascular disease. Semin Vasc Med. 2002;2:257–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Ross R, Janssen I. Physical activity, total and regional obesity: dose–response considerations. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33:S521–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Caspersen CJ, Powell KE, Christenson GM. Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep. 1985;100:126–31.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Steffl M, Bohannon RW, Sontakova L, Tufano JJ, Shiells K, Holmerova I. Relationship between sarcopenia and physical activity in older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Interv Aging. 2017;12:835–45.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Krampe RT, Smolders C, Doumas M. Leisure sports and postural control: can a black belt protect your balance from aging? Psychol Aging. 2014;29(1):95–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Deschenes MR. Effects of aging on muscle fiber type and size. Sports Med. 2004;34(12):809–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Lexell L, Taylor CC, Sjostrom M. What is the cause of ageing atrophy? Total number, size and proportion of different fiber types studied in whole vastus lateralis muscle from 15- to 83-year-old-men. J Neurol Sci. 1988;84:275–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Skelton DA, Kennedy J, Rutherford OM. Explosive power and asymmetry in leg muscle function in frequent fallers and non-fallers aged over 65. Age Ageing. 2002;31(2):119–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Baeyens JP, Bauer JM, Boirie Y, Cederholm T, Landi F, Martin FC, Michel JP, Rolland Y, Schneider SM, Topinková E, Vandewoude M, Zamboni M. European Working Group on sarcopenia in older people. Age Ageing. 2010;39(4):412–23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Macaluso A, De vito G. Muscle strength, power and adaptations to resistance training in older people. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2004;91(94):450–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Vermeulen A. Ageing, hormones, body composition, metabolic effects. World J Urol. 2002;20:23–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Ferrucci L, Penninx BW, Volpato S, Harris TB, Bandeen-Roche K, Balfour J, Leveille SG, Fried LP, Md JM. Change in muscle strength explains accelerated decline of physical function in older women with high interleukin-6 serum levels. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50(12):1947–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Zoico E, Roubenoff R. The role of cytokines in regulating protein metabolism and muscle function. Nutr Rev. 2002;60(2):39–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Polyzos SA, Margioris AN. Sarcopenic obesity. Hormones (Athens). 2018;17(3):321–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42000-018-0049-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Barazzoni R, Bischoff S, Boirie Y, Busetto L, Cederholm T, Dicker D, Toplak H, Van Gossum A, Yumuk V, Vettor R. Sarcopenic obesity: time to meet the challenge. Obes Facts. 2018;11(4):294–305.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Rowan SL, Rygiel K, Purves-Smith FM, Solbak NM, Turnbull DM, Hepple RT. Denervation causes fiber atrophy and myosin heavy chain co-expression in senescent skeletal muscle. PLoS One. 2012;7:e29082.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Edström E, Altun M, Bergman E, Johnson H, Kullberg S, Ramírez-León V, Ulfhake B. Factors contributing to neuromuscular impairment and sarcopenia during aging. Physiol Behav. 2007;92(1–2):129–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Faulkner JA, Larkin LM, Claflin DR, Brooks SV. Age-related changes in the structure and function of skeletal muscles. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2007;34(11):1091–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Stanworth RD, Jones TH. Testosterone for the aging male; current evidence and recommended practice. Clin Interv Aging. 2008;3(1):25–44.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Craig BW, Brown R, Everhart J. Effects of progressive resistance training on growth hormone and testosterone levels in young and elderly subjects. Mech Ageing Dev. 1989;49(2):159–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Veldhuis JD. Aging and hormones of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis: gonadotropic axis in men and somatotropic axes in men and women. Ageing Res Rev. 2008;7(3):189–208.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Kraemer WJ, Gordon SE, Fleck SJ, et al. Endogenous anabolic hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise in males and females. Int J Sports Med. 1991;12:228–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Rudman D. Growth hormone, body composition, and aging. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1985;33(11):800–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Cleasby ME, Jamieson PM, Atherton PJ. Insulin resistance and sarcopenia: mechanistic links between common co-morbidities. J Endocrinol. 2016;229(2):R67–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Ryan AS. Insulin resistance with aging: effects of diet and exercise. Sports Med. 2000;30(5):327–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Copras E, Harman SM, Blackman MR. Human growth hormone and human aging. Endocr Rev. 1993;14(1):20–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Boulé NG, Haddad E, Kenny GP, Wells GA, Sigal RJ. Effects of exercise on glycemic control and body mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. JAMA. 2001;286:1218–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Wei M, Gibbons LW, Kampert JB, Nichaman MZ, Blair SN. Low cardiorespiratory fitness and physical inactivity as predictors of mortality in men with type 2 diabetes. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132(8):605–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Kim TN, Park MS, Yang SJ, Yoo HJ, Kang HJ, Song W, Seo JA, Kim SG, Kim NH, Baik SH, Choi DS, Choi KM. Prevalence and determinant factors of sarcopenia in patients with type 2 diabetes: the Korean Sarcopenic Obesity Study (KSOS). Diabetes Care. 2010;33:1497–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Weaver CM, Gordon CM, Janz KF, Kalkwarf HJ, Lappe JM, Lewis R, O’Karma M, Wallace TC, Zemel BS. The national osteoporosis foundation’s position statement on peak bone mass development and lifestyle factors: a systematic review and implementation recommendations. Osteoporos Int. 2016;27(4):1281–386.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Heaney RP, Abrahams S, Dawson-Hughes B, Looker A, Marcus R, Matkovic V, Weaver C. Peak bone mass. Osteoporos Int. 2000;11(12):985–1009.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Tsuda T. Epidemiology of fragility fractures and fall prevention in the elderly: a systematic review of the literature. Curr Orthop Pract. 2017;28(6):580–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. WHO Scientific Group. Prevention and management of osteoporosis. WHO Technical Report Series. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 2003;921:1–164.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Kanis JA. Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis: synopsis of a WHO report. WHO Study Group. Osteoporos Int. 1994;4:368–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. MacKnight JM. Osteopenia and osteoporosis in female athletes. Clin Sports Med. 2017;36(4):687–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA. 2001;285(6):785–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Snelling AM, Crespo CJ, Schaeffer M, Smith S Walbourn L. Modifiable and nonmodifiable factors associated with osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: results from the third national health and nutrition examination survey, 1988-1994. J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 2001;10(1):5765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Xia B, Li Y, Zhou J, Tian B, Feng L. Identification of potential pathogenic genes associated with osteoporosis. Bone Joint Res. 2017;6(12):640–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Maïmoun L, Sultan C. Effects of physical activity on bone remodeling. Metabolism. 2011;60(3):378–88.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Russo CR. The effects of exercise on bone. Basic concepts and implications for the prevention of fractures. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2009;6(3):223–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Troy KL, Mancuso ME, Butler TA, Johnson JE. Exercise early and often: effects of physical activity and exercise on women’s bone health. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(5). pii: E878. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15050878.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Gomes-Cabello A, Ara I, Gonzales-Aguero A, Casajus JÁ, Vicente-Rodrigues G. Effects of training on bone mass in older adults. Sports Med. 2012;42(4):301–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Carrasco Poyatos M, Navarro Sanches MD, Martinez-Moro I, Reche Orenes D. Daily physical activity impact in old women bone density and grip strength. Nutr Hosp. 2016;33(6):1305–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Layne JE, Nelson ME. The effects of progressive resistance training on bone density: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(1):25–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Skou ST, Roos EM. Good life with osteoarthritis in Denmark (GLAS:D™): evidence-based education and supervised neuromuscular exercise delivered by certified physiotherapists nationwide. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2017;18(1):72. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-017-1439-y.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Waugh E, King L, Gakhal N, Hawker G, Webster F, White D. Physical activity intervention in primary care and rheumatology for the management of knee osteoarthritis: a review. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2019;71(2):189–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Duarte VS, Santos ML, Rodrigues KA, Ramires JB, Areas GPT, Borges GF. Exercícios físicos e osteoartrose: uma revisão sistemática. Fisioter Mov. 2013;26(1):193–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Bennell KL, Dobson F, Hinman RS. Exercise in osteoarthritis: moving from prescription to adherence. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2014;28(1):93–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Fransen M, McConnell S, Harmer AR, Van der Esch M, Simic M, Bennell KL. Exercise for osteoarthritis of the knee. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;1:CD004376. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004376.pub3.

  64. Fransen M, McConnell S, Hernandez-Molina G, Reichenbach S. Exercise for osteoarthritis of the hip. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(4):CD007912. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007912.pub2.

  65. Østerås N, Kjeken I, Smedslund G, Moe RH, Slatkowsky-Christensen B, Uhlig T, Hagen KB. Exercise for hand osteoarthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;1:CD010388. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010388.pub2.

  66. Rao S, Riskowski JL, Hannan MT. Musculoskeletal conditions of the foot and ankle: assessments and treatment options. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2012;26(3):345–68.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Bossen D, Veenhof C, Van Beek KE, Spreeuwenberg PM, Dekker J, De Bakker DH. Effectiveness of a web-based physical activity intervention in patients with knee and/or hip osteoarthritis: randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2013;15(11):e257.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Bartels EM, Juhl CB, Christensen R, Hagen KB, Danneskiold-Samsøe B, Dagfinrud H, Lund H. Aquatic exercise for the treatment of knee and hip osteoarthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;3:CD005523.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Hanada K, Hara M, Hirakawa Y, Hoshi K, Ito K, Gamada K. Immediate effects of leg-press exercises with tibial internal rotation on individuals with medial knee osteoarthritis. Physioher Res Int. 2018;2:e1725. https://doi.org/10.1002/pri.1725.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Goode AP, Carey TS, Jordan JM. Low back pain and lumbar spine osteoarthritis: how are they related? Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2013;15(2):305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11926-012-0305-z.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Lachman ME, Lipsitz L, Lubben J, Castaneda-Sceppa C, Jette AM. When adults don’t exercise: behavior strategies to increase physical activity in sedentary middle-aged and older adults. Innov Aging. 2018;2(1):igy007. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igy007. Epub 2018 Apr 5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Chase JA. Interventions to increase physical activity among older adults: a meta-analysis. Gerontologist. 2015;55(4):706–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Davis MG, Fox KR. Physical activity patterns assessed by accelerometry in older people. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2007;100(5):581–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Wen CP, Wai JP, Tsai MK, Yang YC, Cheng TY, Lee MC, Chan HT, Tsao CK, Tsai SP, Wu X. Minimum amount of physical activity for reduced mortality and extended life expectancy: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2011;378(9798):1244–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. von Berens Å, Koochek A, Nydahl M, Fielding RA, Gustafsson T, Kirn DR, Cederholm T, Södergren M. “Feeling more self-confident, cheerful and safe”. Experiences from a health-promoting intervention in community dwelling older adults—a qualitative study. J Nutr Health Aging. 2018;22(4):541–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. NHS Guidelines for older adults aged 65 and over. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/physical-activity-guidelines-older-adults/#guidelines-for-older-adults-aged-65-and-over.

  77. Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Bredin SS. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ. 2006;174(6):801–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Guure CB, Ibrahim NA, Adam MB, Said SM. Impact of physical activity on cognitive decline, dementia, and its subtypes: meta-analysis of prospective studies. BioMed Res Int. 2017;2017:9016924.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, State University of Campinas—UNICAMP, Exercise and Sports Medicine, Campinas, SP, Brazil

    Sérgio Rocha Piedade, Mauro Mitsuo Inada, Gerson Muraro Laurito, Rodrigo Goncalves Pagnano & Andre luis Lugnani de Andrade

  2. Department of Radiology, State University of Campinas—UNICAMP, Exercise and Sports Medicine, Campinas, SP, Brazil

    Diego Navarro e Paiva

  3. State University of Campinas—UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil

    Gustavo Pereira Fraga

  4. Pontifícia Universidade Católica—PUC, Soracaba, SP, Brazil

    Tulio Pereira Cardoso

Authors
  1. Sérgio Rocha Piedade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mauro Mitsuo Inada
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gerson Muraro Laurito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Diego Navarro e Paiva
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Gustavo Pereira Fraga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rodrigo Goncalves Pagnano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Andre luis Lugnani de Andrade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Tulio Pereira Cardoso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sérgio Rocha Piedade .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Orthopedics and Traumatology, State University of Campinas – UNICAMP, Campinas / Sao Paulo, Brazil

    Sérgio Rocha Piedade

  2. Orthopaedic Sports Medicine, University of Munich (TUM), München, Bayern, Germany

    Andreas B. Imhoff

  3. Ascot Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand

    Mark Clatworthy

  4. Department of Orthopedics & Traumatology, Federal University of São Paulo, Vila Clementino - São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Moises Cohen

  5. Espregueira-Mendes Sports Centre, Clínica do Dragão, Porto, Portugal

    João Espregueira-Mendes

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 ISAKOS

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Piedade, S.R. et al. (2019). Physical Activity at Adulthood and Old Age. In: Rocha Piedade, S., Imhoff, A., Clatworthy, M., Cohen, M., Espregueira-Mendes, J. (eds) The Sports Medicine Physician. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10433-7_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10433-7_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-10432-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-10433-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation