Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reserved Seats for Women in Rural Local Government: Achieving a Level Playing Field

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Mixed Methods and Cross Disciplinary Research

Part of the book series: Contemporary Systems Thinking ((CST))

Abstract

The government of Bangladesh introduced direct election in the quota seats for women through the Local Government (Second Amendment) Act 1997. The empirical studies on the performances of the elected women representatives, however, show mix evidences of women representatives’ success and empowerment. Intuitively, the literature commonly scrutinised the role performances of the elected women representatives in the LGIs, but there is no study so far to investigate whether there were situations that beget self-selection in contesting (and more importantly, in self-exclusion from contesting) election. This paper discusses the issues women representatives faced in contesting election in the local government institutions in Bangladesh. Empirical evidence shows women members were to struggle in exercising agency and mobilising resources while making a decision to contest election, during election campaign as well as functioning in the LGIs once elected.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Eve-teasing is used in Bangladesh to refer to the repeated verbal harassment of girls that takes place often on the way to the girl’s school/college or office.

  2. 2.

    In the 1997 Local Governance Act, three units are created in each Union Parishad/Pouroshova for the women, a unit comprising three wards. A Union Parishad/Pouroshova thus has nine general wards from which nine members are elected. Besides, there is now provision of three women members to be directly elected. The Union Parishad/Pouroshova is thus reconstituted as 9 + 3 = 12 members, headed by the chairman/mayor as before. The innovation of this Act was to introduce direct adult franchise in the quota seats for women. This opened the door for women to actively take part in politics for the first time in the history of Bangladesh.

  3. 3.

    Panchayat is the lowest tier of the rural local government in India.

  4. 4.

    The current parliament has nominated 50 women members in the reserved seats. The number of reserved seats each political party gets is determined by the percentage of votes parties received in the general election.

  5. 5.

    The local government institutions in Bangladesh are in charge of, on behalf of the national government, to list, allocate and distribute relief items (e.g. rice, wheat, flour, sugar, pulse, cooking oil, cloths, tube-wells, etc.) to distress households. Note that like many developing countries, Bangladesh doesn’t have pension system for its citizens. Instead, the poor and extreme poor households are provided regular assistance (mainly food items) through local government institutions. Due to low supply and high demand of such relief operation bribery, corruption and nepotism are heard very often.

  6. 6.

    Salam is the Islamic way of wishing and greeting. In full meaning it means may Allah bless you with peace and tranquillity. Saying Salam is considered as reflection of one’s humbleness to the elderly, modesty and religiosity.

References

  • ADB. (2004). Gender and governance issues in local government: Regional report of technical assistance in Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan. Manila: South Asia Regional Department, Asian Development Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aktar, S. (2006a). Women empowerment in the local government system in Bangladesh: A study of the elected women members of some selected Union Parishads. Rajshahi: Rajshahi University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aktar, S. (2006b). Women empowerment, participation and leadership in the local government system of Bangladesh: A study of the elected women members of Union Parishads (in Bengali). Journal of Bangladesh Public Administration Training Centre, 8(3), 32–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aktar, S. (2009). Problems and potentials of women empowerment in the local government system in Bangladesh. Social Science Journal, 15, 42–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali, A. (2003). Women’s participation in local government. Dhaka: Miazee Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babbie, E. (2007). The practice of social research. London: Wordsworth Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basu, A. (2003). Gender and governance: Concept and context. In M. Nussbaum et al. (Eds.), Essays on gender and governance (pp. 20–58). New Delhi: Human Development Research Centre, UNDP.

    Google Scholar 

  • BBS. (2010). Statistical year book. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beijing Platform for Action. (1995). Fourth world conference on women, United Nations Development Programme.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, A. (2009). Gender and governance: Overview report. Sussex: BRIDGE, Institute of Development Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. New York: Longman Scientific and Technical.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, N. (1985). Women in politics in Bangladesh. In Q. K. Ahmed et al. (Eds.), Situation of women in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Ministry of Social Welfare and Women’s Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, N. (1994a). Gender issues and politics in a patriarchy. In B. J. Nelson & N. Chowdhury (Eds.), Women and politics worldwide. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, N. (1994b). Women in politics. Empowerment, Women for Women, 1, 7–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, N. (1994c). Women’s participation in politics: Marginalization and related issues. In N. Chowdhury et al. (Eds.), Women and politics. Dhaka: University Press Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, F. (2008). Women in politics in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Ministry of Social Welfare and Women’s Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, F. D. (2009). Problems of women’s participation in Bangladesh politics. The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 98(404), 555–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94(Suppl), 95–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlerup, D. (2006). Women, quotas and politics. Oxon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlerup, D., & Freidenvall, L. (2005). Quotas as a fast track to equal representation for women. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 7(1), 26–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darcy, R., Welch, S., & Clark, J. (1987). Women, elections, and representation. New York: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Das, H. (2005). The rationale of increasing the number of women’s reserved seats in the parliament and holding direct election. In Movement profiles of Bangladesh Mahila Parishad Report (pp. 1996–2002). Dhaka: Bangladesh Mahila Parishad.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenstadt, S. N., & Roniger, L. (1980). Patron-client relations as a model of structuring social exchange. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22(1), 42–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eschle, C. (2001). Global democracy, social movements, and feminism. Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eulau, H. (1962). Recollections. In J. C. Wahlke et al. (Eds.), The legislative system: Explorations in legislative behavior (pp. 121–140). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Network of Experts. (1997). Women in decision-making. Luxembourg: European Network of Experts, European Commission on Anti-Discrimination.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evertzen, A. (2001). Gender and local governance. The Hague: Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV).

    Google Scholar 

  • Firoj, J. (2007). Women in Bangladesh Parliament. Dhaka: AH Development Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankl, E. (2004). Quota as empowerment: The use of reserved seats in Union Parishad as an instrument for women’s political empowerment in Bangladesh. Stockholm: Department of Political Science, Stockholm University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fulton, F. (2008). Women’s participation in decentralised government: Panchayat Raj Institutions in Rural Rajasthan, India. San Antonio: Saint Mary’s University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner, J. W. (1985). Introduction to political science. Delhi: Pearl Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Getz, V. (2005). Gateways and gatekeepers: Empowerment through reservation: The experience of elected women representatives in Kerala, India Panchayats. Pullman: Washington State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaeser, E., Laibson, D., & Sacerdote, B. (2002). An economic approach to social capital. The Economic Journal, 112(483), F437–F458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • GoB. (2008). Constitution of Bangladesh. Dhaka: Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of Bangladesh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, A. M. (2004). Decentralization and gender equality, striving for gender equality in an unequal world. Washington: United Nations Development Programme.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, A. M. (2009). Gender and administration. IDS Bulletin, 23(4), 6–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guhathakurta, M., & Begum, S. (1995). Women’s participation in the formal structure and decision making bodies in Bangladesh. In R. Jahan (Ed.), Empowerment of women: Nairobi to Beijing (1985-1995) (pp. 29–45). Dhaka: Women For Women.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurumurthy, A. (1998). Women’s rights and status: Questions of analysis and measurement, UNDP Monograph series no. 7. Retrieved from http://www.undp.org/gender/resources/mono7.html, Washington.

  • Halder, N. (2004). Female representation in parliament: A case study from Bangladesh. New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, 6, 27–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haque, M. S. (2000). Female representation in parliament: A case study from Bangladesh. New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, 6(1), 59–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haque, M. S. (2003). Citizen participation in governance through representation: Issue of gender in East Asia. International Journal of Public Administration, 26(5), 569–590.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huda, K., Rahman, S., & Guirguis, C. (2008). Social capital and what it represents: The experience of the ultra-poor in Bangladesh. Journal of Power, 1(3), 295–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IDEA. (2013). Quota project: Global Database of Quotas for Women. Retrieved from http://www.quotaproject.org/aboutQuotas.cfm, cite visited 17 January 2013.

  • Islam, M. (2000). Political empowerment in Bangladesh in world perspective: An analysis. Rajshahi University Studies, Part-C, 8, 95–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabeer, N. (1994). Reversed realities: Gender hierarchies in development thought. London: Verso Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabeer, N. (1999). The conditions and consequences of choice: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabeer, N. (2011). Between affiliation and autonomy: Navigating pathways of women’s empowerment and gender justice in rural Bangladesh. Development and Change, 42(2), 499–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karl, M. (1995). Women and empowerment, participation and decision making. London: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, M. H. (1998). Patron-client networks and the economic effects of corruption in Asia. European Journal of Development Research, 10(1), 15–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, Z. R., & Mohsin, A. (2008). Women’s empowerment through local governance: Emerging issues and debates. In Pathways of Women’s Empowerment: RPC Mid Term Review Conference, Cairo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kothari, C. R. (2005). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Delhi: Vishwa Prakashan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krook, M. L. (2005). Politicizing representation: Campaigns for candidate gender quotas worldwide. New York: Columbia University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krook, M. L. (2006). Reforming representation: The diffusion of candidate gender quotas worldwide. Politics & Gender, 2(3), 303–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krook, M. L. (2007). Candidate gender quotas: A framework for analysis. European Journal of Political Research, 46(3), 367–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krook, M. L. (2009). Quotas for women in politics: Gender and candidate selection reform worldwide. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, S. (2004). Women’s empowerment and democratization: The effects of electoral systems, participation and experiences in Africa. Studies in Comparative International Development, 39(1), 28–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lister, R. (1997). Citizenship: feminist perspective. London: McMillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Local Government Ordinance. (1997). Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahmud, S., Shah, N., & Becker, S. (2012). Measurement of women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh. World Development, 40(3), 610–619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahtab, N. (2007). Women in Bangladesh: From Inequality to Empowerment. Dhaka: AH Development Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, K. (1984). The status of women: A review of its relationships to fertility and mortality. New York: Rockefeller Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moin, J. (2004). Women empowerment in local government system of Bangladesh. Rajshahi: Rajshahi University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moser, C. O. (1989). Gender planning in the third world: Meeting practical and strategic gender needs. World Development, 17(11), 1799–1825.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moser, C. (1993). Gender planning in development: Theory, practice and training. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukhopadhyay, M. (2003). Creating citizens who demand just governance: Gender and development in the twenty-first century. Gender and Development, 11(3), 45–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukhopadhyay, M. (2005). Decentralisation and gender equity in South Asia: An issues paper. Ottawa: The International Development Research Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukhopadhyay, M., & Meer, S. (2004). Creating voice and carving space: Redefining governance from a gender perspective. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).

    Google Scholar 

  • Murshid, T. M. (2004). Women, Islam and the state in Bangladesh: Subordination and resistance. Retrieved from www.medmedia.org/bangla/documenti/le_link4_dirittiReligiosi.html

  • Nazneen, S., & Tasneem, S. (2010). A silver lining: Women in reserved seats in local government in Bangladesh. IDS Bulletin, 41(5), 35–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niven, D. (2010). Party elites and women candidates: The shape of bias. In M. L. Krook & S. Child (Eds.), Gender power, leadership and governance: A reader (pp. 151–158). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panday, P. (2008a). Women’s political participation in Bangladesh: Institutional reforms and actors. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panday, P. (2008b). Representation without participation: Quotas for women in Bangladesh. International Political Science Review, 29(4), 489–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panday, P. (2011). Local government system in Bangladesh: How far is it decentralised? Lex Localis-Journal of Local Self-Government, 9(3), 205–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, A. (1998). Feminism and politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qadir, R. S. (2004). Participation of women at the local level politics: Problems and prospects. In N. Chowdhury (Ed.), Women and politics. Dhaka: Women for Women.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, M., & Roy M. K. (2004). Participation of women in rural local government: A socio-economic analysis. In Bangladesh in the 21st Century: The Political Economy Perspective, the XV Biennial Conference, Bangladesh Economic Association, Dhaka.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, M., & Zaman, N. (2004). Politics and local self-government in Bangladesh: The historical perspective. Social Science Journal, 9, 31–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riaz, A. (2005). Traditional institutions as tools of political Islam in Bangladesh. London: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, M. (2001). Non-governmental organizations and rural development in Uganda. Bergen: Bergen University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roskin, M., Cord, R. L., Medeiros, J., & Jones, W. (2007). Political science: An introduction. New York: Pearson Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salahuddin, K. (1995). Women’s political participation in Bangladesh. In J. Huq (Ed.), Women in politics and bureaucracy. Dhaka: Women For Women.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson, P. (2009). Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sawer, M., Tremblay, M., & Trimble, L. (2006). Representing women in parliament: A comparative study. Oxon: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqi, N. (1995). Problems of people’s participation at the grass-root: Decentralized local government in perspective. Journal of Administration and Diplomacy, 3(1), 17–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui, T. (2002). Effective participation of women and strengthening of local government in Bangladesh. In National seminar on good governance and local government: Changes and challenges. Dhaka: Odhikar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stacey, M., & Price, M. (1981). Women, power and politics. London: Tavistock Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun, T. (2004). Gender representation in politics and public administration: Taiwan and Asian countries. In 18th Conference of International Association of Historians of Asia (IAHA), Academic Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamerius, K. L. (2010). Sex, gender, and leadership in the representation of women. In M. L. Krook & S. Child (Eds.), Women, gender, and politics: A reader (pp. 93–112). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, S. (1997). Why gender matters? The perceptions of women office holders. Women and Politics, 17(1), 27–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorlind, R. (2003). Decentralization and democracy: Exploring social capital and politicization in the Bengal Region. Dhaka: Pathak Shamabesh Book.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, M. (2007). Democracy, representation and women: A comparative analysis. Democratization, 14(4), 533–553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tripp, A. M., & Kang, A. (2008). The global impact of quotas: On the fast track to increased female legislative representation. Comparative Political Studies, 41, 338–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNDP. (1997). A global research framework of the decentralised governance programme. New York: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNIFEM. (2002). Leadership in decision making. Retrieved April 30, 2012, from http://www.unifem.undp.org/gov_led.htm, New York.

  • United Nations. (1992). Women in politics and decision making in the late twentieth century. Dordrecht: Nijhoff Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. (1996). The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action: Fourth World Conference on Women. New York: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • Usu, N. (2010). Affirmative action in Indonesia: The gender quota system in the 2004 and 2009 elections. Asia Online, Flinders Asia Centre Occasional Paper, 1, 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vickers, J. (1997). Towards a feminist understanding of representation. In J. Arscott & L. Trimble (Eds.), In the presence of women (pp. 20–46). Toronto: Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vijayalakhmi, V. (2002). Gender, accountability and political representation in local government. Bangalore: Institute for Social and Political Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viswanathan, N., Duggan, L., Nisonoff, L., & Wieqersma, N. (1997). The women, gender and development reader. London: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, R. (1984). The system of administrative and political corruption: Canal irrigation in South India. Journal of Development Studies, 18(3), 287–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. (2010). Domains of contestation: Women’s empowerment and Islam in Bangladesh. Women’s Studies International Forum, 33, 334–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, K. R. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for helpful comments on the previous draft of this paper to Dr. Elizabeth Morrell, Mona Lena Krook, participants of the Midwest Political Science Conference (Chicago, USA) 2012; New Zealand Political Studies Association Conference (Canterbury University, Christchurch) 2013 and the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Science Seminar (Flinders University) 2013. The remaining errors are responsibility of the authors. Opinion, explanation and suggestions do not correspond to any organisations mentioned in the paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Public Administration, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

    Shajeda Aktar

  2. Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia

    Shajeda Aktar & Janet McIntyre-Mills

Authors
  1. Shajeda Aktar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Janet McIntyre-Mills
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shajeda Aktar .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia

    Janet McIntyre-Mills

  2. DABE, Sunnyside Campus, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

    Norma R. A. Romm

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Aktar, S., McIntyre-Mills, J. (2019). Reserved Seats for Women in Rural Local Government: Achieving a Level Playing Field. In: McIntyre-Mills, J., Romm, N.R.A. (eds) Mixed Methods and Cross Disciplinary Research. Contemporary Systems Thinking. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04993-5_17

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation