Abstract
In this chapter, we will deal with a specific textual phenomenon of the (late) Soviet period: samizdat literature, self-published pamphlets that appeared and circulated outside state control. Islamizdat literature, as the grey literature on Islam came to be called, played an important role in reactivating religious ideas in the 1980s after Gorbachev introduced the political reforms known as perestroika and during the first decade of independence. The little pamphlets were easily reproduced and distributed.
In the textual analysis of jihad, I attempt to outline the content of selected books, which I contrast to the interpretations of jihad by ordinary people. One pamphlet in particular will play a central role in the discussion: The Mujahid’s Handbook; this pamphlet was distributed amongst opposition fighters during the civil war in Tajikistan and contains an introduction explaining the terms “jihad,” “mujahid,” and “shahid” for its intended readership. The present chapter differs from previous ones by virtue of its textual analysis, which provides an insight into the way Central Asian Muslims tried to reconnect to the Muslim world.
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Notes
- 1.
During the Soviet period, official organizations overseen by the state administration (e.g., the Writer’s Union) were responsible for closely monitoring publications.
- 2.
I thank my colleague Daniel König for his valuable comments on this chapter and for sharing his expertise on Islam.
- 3.
This form of printing, distribution, and content differs considerably from pre-Soviet Central Asian Islamic literature (Bukharian Emirate and Turkestan).
- 4.
For instance, Frank traces an Uzbek-language pamphlet warning of religious innovations, entitled Bakhtnoma, which he found in Kazakhstan, and which had been translated from Tajik (Frank 2007, 23).
- 5.
A translation of The Mujahid’s Handbook can be found in the Appendix.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
This subjective judgment is based on the material I have collected. It would require another project (one which appears impossible to me) to produce exact statistics on how many islamizdat texts have ever been produced and on what subjects.
- 9.
In 2003 a video apparently produced by Hizb ut-Tahrir was circulating among Dushanbe youth. The story recalled how a young man experiences dying, the ritual of the funeral, and being put into the grave. Since he was a sinner (playing cards, not caring about religious duties), the water used for the washing of the body feels like it is boiling, on his body sits a dog (impurity), and when he is put into the grave the devil burns him. Finally the whole experience turns out to be a dream, and when the young man wakes up he dedicates himself to the practice of Islam.
- 10.
The materials used in this chapter come from my private library, which I have collected since the early 2000s. Even if my approximately one hundred pamphlets cover the most important themes and are representative in their plurality, the collection is certainly not comprehensive. I take full responsibility for all translations from Tajik and Russian.
- 11.
All transcriptions are based on Tajik-Cyrillic as found in the pamphlets.
- 12.
This book is a canon (Hamzanoma) of the hero Amir Hamza, the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. According to the editors, the book was taken from the Arab countries to India and Indonesia. This translation is from a Persian copy.
- 13.
Tatar reformer of the Jadid movement: Ismail Bej Gasprinskij (1851–1914).
- 14.
Muhammad Sharif Himmatzoda was the leader of the Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan and later became the party’s deputy head and a member of the Tajik parliament. He died in 2010.
- 15.
Nineteenth-century Muslim intellectual, poet, writer, and judge.
- 16.
- 17.
Samuli Schielke (2006) has called it “Sakralisierung des Alltags und Banalisierung des Heiligen: Religion und Konsum in Ägypten.”
- 18.
- 19.
These books are all basic literature for learning how to read the Qur’an; on their use, see Khalid (1998, 22–26). This pamphlet was printed in 1991 by the Islamic University of Tajikistan in Dushanbe and has a short note in Russian explaining that the original text was written in the seventeenth century. The pamphlet was printed in Moscow.
- 20.
These are taken from Muhammad Shams al-Din Hafiz, better known as Hafiz Sherozi (1325/26–1389/90), and regarded as one of the greatest Persian lyric poets.
- 21.
These two suras are among the first that religious pupils in Tajikistan learn, as they are widely used whether for a duo* (blessing) for ill people or for the khatmi Qur’an (the celebration on having accomplished the learning of the Qur’an by heart).
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
Haft mardi nakūkor was written by Domullo Ibrohimi Naqqosh from Panjikent in response to another book called Shash sani gunahgor (The six sins of a woman), which generated a discussion in his community as to why sins where specific to women.
- 25.
The category “unbelievers” can include a wide variety of individuals, practices, and regimes.
- 26.
Frank (2007, 19) emphasizes that the books on religious recitation come primarily from Kazan and Ufa.
- 27.
These individuals are among the most important authors who collected and curated material from the time of the Prophet. Their books have remained central references, and their full names are: Abu’l-Husain Muslim b. al-Hajjaj al-Qushayri al-Naisaburi; Abu ’Abdallah Muhammad ibn Isma’il al-Buchari al-Ju’fi; Abu ’Isa Muhammad ibn ’Isa at-Tirmidhi (Termizi); Abu Davud Sulaiman ibn al-Ash’ath as-Sijistani; Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad ibn Abd-Allah al-Hakim al-Nishaburi. (The underlined portion of each name represents its usage in The Mujahid’s Handbook).
- 28.
“Sanadhoi me’jorii huquqi oid ba tanzimi an’ana va jashnu marosimho” (Standard document of law about tradition/custom and celebration and ceremonies). Jumhuri Todjikiston, 2007 (Government document).
- 29.
According to Islamic theology, the Imām Mahdi will come to rid the world of evil, unite all people, and bring signs of the Day of Resurrection: “Al-Maḥdī (Arab.), ‘the rightly guided one’ is the name of the restorer of religion and justice who, according to a widely held Muslim belief, will rule before the end of the world” (Madelung 2015).
- 30.
During the civil war in Tajikistan, Arabs offered Tajik children (orphans) religious lessons in Russia (especially Moscow). This was basic training that would prepare the children to continue their education somewhere in Arabiston (Roche 2013).
- 31.
According to other sources, Gustav Lubuni was an Albanian scholar who, in his book Hadaretul Arabije, argues that Albanians peacefully accepted Islam under the Ottomans, whereas Christian beliefs had been violently forced upon them. He also gives the example of forced Christianization in Spain during the mid-sixteenth century, which led to an almost total destruction of Muslim culture.
- 32.
- 33.
Abdulloh Noseh Ulvon may be Abdullah Nasih ‘Ulwān, a scholar born in Damascus in 1928 (dead in 1987) who studied at al-Azhar University in Cairo, received his PhD in Pakistan, and taught at King Abdul-Aziz University in Makkah. Source: https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/1982628.Abdullah_Nasih_Ulwan.
- 34.
The Arabic original is ‘Ulwān, which the authors alternately translated as Ulvon and Alavon.
- 35.
I have contextualized the content in a previous study on youth bulge and conflict (Roche 2014).
- 36.
- 37.
- 38.
- 39.
Informal conversation in November 2012.
- 40.
Parts of the book have been translated in the Appendix.
- 41.
For an interview with one of these children who studied in Pakistan for many years, see Roche (2013).
- 42.
The editor’s name, Muhammadsaburi Bukhori, is written on the pamphlet without the special letters of Tajik Cyrillic. It seems likely that the printing house did not have the letters ū, ī, h, and q, which do not exist in Russian Cyrillic.
- 43.
Muhammadali Hait was a translator in the Soviet–Afghan War and worked as a speaker for the Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan (IRPT) before being arrested together with several other party leaders in autumn 2015. For more information on Hait and his thinking, see Chap. 3.
- 44.
This observation was made by the Tajik who translated the complete text into English. Regarding the relationship between Tajiks from Tajikistan and Afghans (Tajiks and others) see the example in Chap. 3.
- 45.
See for example Gerges (2009).
- 46.
As regards Iran, I would like to thank Tim Epkenhans, who explained to me that revolutionary literature was also prepared for Sunni Muslims, and as such Tajikistan was certainly a focus of Iran’s attention.
- 47.
Personal discussion with Yahia Baiza.
- 48.
See the entry in the Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed.
- 49.
Fitna refers to times in which a community experiences difficult times because people turn away from religion. In Arabic: difficult tests, temptation.
- 50.
The full list of duties is given in the Appendix.
- 51.
A translation of the Code of Mujohidin is provided in the Appendix.
- 52.
The following translations were done by a Tajik native speaker who worked as my assistant.
- 53.
The Muhajid’s Handbook uses mujohidin, which is neither a correct Arabic transcription nor a Tajik plural. Unlike jihad, which is consistently spelled as jihod, many other terms are used in various forms and, therefore, I have left them as they appear in the book.
- 54.
The conscious collection of good deeds (Ḥasanāt) has become a popular practice, particularly among Salafis, to link religious practices to a better chance at a good position in the heavenly system after death. For instance, praying with a group of men increases the value of prayer for men by twenty-seven. Other good deeds include converting a person, building a mosque, caring for orphaned children, and many other activities reported in the Qur’an or Hadiths. In the same way, one can lose deeds by visiting a fortune teller (bakhshi), for instance: “if you go to a bakhshi, forty days of your worship will be cancelled” (Roche 2015, 86). Compare: “Who is he that will lend Allah a goodly loan? Then Allah will increase it manifold to his credit and he will have a good reward.” Sura Al-Hadid, Verse 11.
- 55.
By “schoolless Islam” Olcott means that people practice Islam without following a specific madhhab (school of Islamic thought) or being able to distinguish between the different schools.
- 56.
In the Battle of Uhud, the early Muslims of Medina were defeated by the more powerful Quraysh tribe and their allies; the Prophet Muhammad was also wounded. In Islam it is seen as Allah testing the community of believers (see for instance Qur’an 3:121–200, or Ibn Kathir 8:36, or Volume 4, Book 52, no. 276).
- 57.
A translation of the legend is given in the Appendix.
- 58.
The battle of Badr plays a central role in Islam, as the Muslim community was victorious and Muhammad’s position strengthened. However, the victory was overturned in the battle of Uhud, which resulted in a spiritual crisis that was later reinterpreted as an important event testing the community (Watt 2015; Robinson 2015).
- 59.
Note that there is no point one (1).
- 60.
I thank Tim Epkenhans for hinting at the fact that, after the civil war in Tajikistan, there was no systematic collection of small arms during the processes of reconciliation.
- 61.
Tim Epkenhans has investigated ideas of masculinity in Tajikistan in his project “Men of Disorder” (University of Freiburg, Germany).
- 62.
These heroes were drawn from the contemporary era, rather from the deep past. They ranged from those involved in major technical advancements (e.g., Yuri Gagarin), to a people involved in a wide variety of military action as Soviet soldiers. Military heroes were often national, or even local, activists celebrated as role models. For an analysis of this phenomenon in the former German Democratic Republic, see Sänger (2006). In addition to military heroism, many stories and cartoons about young pioneers played with heroic elements: rescuing a child from a house fire, defending younger kids from older, stronger “hooligans,” etc. (I thank Svetlana Torno for informing me of this important popular dimension of heroism during the Soviet period).
- 63.
For instance, the annual celebrations of Military Day, Soldiers’ Day, and Men’s Day on February 23 are a tradition from the Soviet period that has continued into the present day, with these holidays still observed in schools, among the general public, and in the army.
- 64.
This concept is not restricted to Islam or Central Asia; it is inherent in war ideology and youth activism. Thus, the war in Afghanistan was portrayed by Western forces as “liberation,” a positive characterization that met with Western morals, but clashed with the militant nature of the Taliban, who acted within another world order.
- 65.
A systematic exploitation of this phenomenon is exemplified by the Hitler Youth in 1930s Germany, which became a strong tool employed against critical adults. For an in-depth analysis of young people as a recruitment pool for combatant groups during the civil war in Tajikistan, see Roche (2014).
- 66.
I have engaged with the question of youth and the socialization of men in the book Domesticating Youth (Roche 2014).
- 67.
There are many state-financed jobs, such as teaching, in which people in the early 2000s earned an equivalent of about seventy-five kilogrammes of wheat per month. Thus, people are interested in those state sectors that promise either a second income (through bribes or secured business) or a well-paid position.
- 68.
This is very interesting and stands in sharp opposition to parents who see their children as their future social security, while their children see social security as something to be provided by the state. In 2011, the majority of Tajiks received a pension that equals about one kilogram of meat per month (US$ 2–3); in 2016 the pension was raised to 200 Tajikistani somoni (about US$22).
- 69.
Based on fieldwork in the Sorbon bazaar in Dushanbe, October 2010.
- 70.
To elaborate, further types of shahid death include, for instance, women who die in childbirth, independent of whether the child survives; people who drown (as often happens in the research area, where a rapid stream flows); people who die in fire; death from various diseases (the list of diseases increases with each interview). A fuller list of situations in which a person becomes shahid can be found in Kohlberg (2015).
- 71.
Cook (2007) has mentioned the role of the audience in martyrdom. The audience does not need to be physically present but it must have access to the information. It is through the production of memory and remembrance of the context of death of the individual that the martyr enters collective memory.
- 72.
See for instance Khosrokhavar (2005).
- 73.
“The idea of either Muhammad or the Muslims being witnesses ‘against’ […] other groups is fairly common throughout the Qur’an. This sense of bearing witness is both active and passive” (Cook 2007, 16).
- 74.
Kepel (2002a, b) has called the activities of Qutb a “cultural revolution” that introduced new ways of conceptualizing Islam. This goes along with a redefinition or re-emphasis of certain aspects of jihad and shahid. “Although martyrdom played but a small role in the achievement of the Muslim state (during the time of Muhammad), Qutb saw it as a necessary role and was careful to portray himself as a martyr during the trial at which he was sentenced to death. Thus, Qutb became the living embodiment of radical Islamic martyrdom” (Cook 2007, 139). See also Kepel (2002a, b).
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Roche, S. (2019). Islamizdat Literature on the Notions of Jihad, Shahid, Mujahid, and Death. In: The Faceless Terrorist. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03843-4_4
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