Abstract
What happens to the relationship between theatre and interculturalism in a contemporary European country of immigration? How does making “intercultural theatre” differ from making theatre in an “intercultural society”? This chapter explores these questions with reference to the emergence of “postmigrant theatre” in Germany, and particularly Feridun Zaimoglu and Günter Senkel’s Black Virgins (Schwarze Jungfrauen). This controversial semi-documentary play about Muslim women premiered to great success in 2006 and has since appeared in at least ten further professional productions in Germany alone. Focusing on productions in Bremen, Hannover, and the Ruhr area, I situate this proliferation against a broader background of “interculturalism” in cultural policies within Germany, tracing the way in which intercultural policies have both enabled and demanded the production of new forms of engagement with postmigrant theatre. The title quotation, taken from the play, suggests an awareness of the uneasy positioning of the play’s success between market demands and a more rights-based approach to inclusion and recognition in contemporary Germany. A focus on the dynamics of intercultural policies allows us to unpack this positioning further, and explore what the production histories of Black Virgins have to tell us about interculturalism and performance in the German context and beyond.
All translations from German-language sources are my own. Note on spelling of Turkish names: in Germany, Turkish names have been rendered both with and without Turkish characters (e.g. Zaimoglu vs Zaimoğlu, Çelik vs Celik). As not only typographical error but also different positions are sometimes expressed through this, here I try to maintain the spelling convention which the artist in question seems to use – thus some names appear in the Germanized variant.
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- 1.
The definition used by the Office for Statistics altered in 2016. The new definition replaces that used until 2011 which encompassed all foreign residents of Germany, as well as those who themselves migrated, or who have at least one parent who migrated, after 1955 to the geographical area currently occupied by the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge 2017).
- 2.
Apart from the first three words, the quotation here appears in the translation provided by Capelle in Weiler (2014).
- 3.
Zaimoglu (born in Bolu, Turkey, 1964) is well known within Germany for his prose work, newspaper columns, and role in the German Islam Conference. He was among the first writers of Turkish origin to gain mainstream prominence within the German literary scene for his work as enfant terrible. Senkel (born in Neumünster, Germany, 1958), on the other hand, was an unknown bookseller prior to his collaboration with Zaimoglu and so has been the subject of less critical attention. It is certainly Zaimoglu’s reputation which has shaped the reception of their co-authored plays, with some studies not even referring to Senkel as co-author.
- 4.
For an English-language summary of the latest of these reports see the interview with Birgit Mandel: https://www.goethe.de/en/kul/ges/eu2/rhr/20940616.html. Accessed on July 1 2017.
- 5.
This sum rose slightly to 4.9 million Euros in 2013 (Statistisches Bundesamt 2016, 78). European Funds for Regional Development and European Social Funds also offer structural funding for culture in Germany, however, a differentiated overview of these funds in Germany is not available via the Cultural Reports due to their complex and transnational nature (Statistisches Bundesamt 2016, 79).
- 6.
See for example the page dedicated to this concept on the website of Federal Government Commissioner for Culture and the Media: https://www.bundesregierung.de/Webs/Breg/DE/Bundesregierung/BeauftragtefuerKulturundMedien/kultur/kulturelleBildung/kulturfueralle/_node.html. Accessed on April 3 2017.
- 7.
For a genealogy of the shift of the specific discourse of “intercultural opening” from a recommendation for the social services to its role as a task for society more generally in Germany, see Curvello 2009.
- 8.
In the 1990s some theatre groups did actively situate themselves as working within the framework of “intercultural theatre”; these included a group named “Türkisch-Deutsches Theatre – Interkulturelles Theatre” (Turkish German Theatre – Intercultural Theatre) or TDT for short, however they appear to have arisen in an educational context, namely in relation to the programme in “Kulturpädagogik” or “Cultural Pedagogy/Cultural Education” at the University of Hildesheim (Siavash 2011, 83–84).
- 9.
I would argue that the shift in the placement of “culture” in this new terminology also has the potential to be highly productive; no longer part of an adjective that describes and so defines a type of performance, “culture” reappears here as a noun acted on by a verb, as a linguistic object that brings forth performance but can also be altered through performance. It more accurately allows for the existence of multiple theatrical cultures within, and in differently distanced relationships to, a national framework.
- 10.
While Terkessidis’ intervention follows the re-emergence of interculturalism as a funding category, he has been invited to speak at numerous conferences and events run by those involved in shaping, implementing, or responding to this development – his work is mentioned throughout the documentation of the 2011 German Dramaturgical Society’s conference, at which he also spoke (see, e.g. Dramaturgische Gesellschaft 2011, 6, 15–18, 36). This suggests that a singular definition of interculturalism in this context has yet to be settled on. See also Christina Holthaus (2011), who talks of “a great lack of clarity over what making intercultural theatre, or finding a sustainable way to open up an institution interculturally, actually means” (147).
- 11.
This is a term popularized by Zaimoglu in his discussions of the play, but which was already in use in sociological studies of postmigrant women’s relationship to Islam in Germany (see, e.g. Nökel 2002, 31–65).
- 12.
Copyright © 2013 by Rowohlt Verlag GmbH, Reinbek bei Hamburg. Aufführungsrechte [Production rights]: Rowohlt Theatre Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, Hamburger Straße 17, 21,465 Reinbek. The full set of monologues is now also available as an e-book from Rowohlt. This line is also partially quoted in slightly different translations by Katrin Sieg (2010, 159), Claudia Breger (2012, 233), and İpek A. Çelik (2012, 122). İ. A. Çelik notes that these lines are those perhaps most frequently quoted in reviews. See also Stewart 2014, 3 n. 4.
- 13.
The production at off-scene Theatre Willy Praml, Frankfurt (2009), where the play was performed together with a production of Hebbel’s Gyges and his Ring under the title Die 1002. Nacht is also a particularly interesting example – unlike the other productions discussed in this chapter, here the play was performed by non-professional actors, Muslim women from the local area who responded to an advert looking for volunteers. The self-development and confidence of the women involved was as important as the final aesthetic product. This production was supported by concept funding from the Fund for Performing Arts, that is, from national rather than regional or local funds. This production is not discussed in more detail here partly for reasons of space, partly as a film is available (Theatre Willy Praml 2010) which documents the rehearsal processes, includes interviews with participants and audience members, and extracts from a recording of the play in performance.
- 14.
Descriptions of performances are based on the recordings of each production provided by the relevant directors. Images of this production can be seen at: http://www.guenfer.de/SchauspielTheaterprojekte/Schwarze_Jungfrauen/SchwarzeJungfrauenSchauspielTheaterProjekte.html. Accessed on March 24 2018.
- 15.
Images of this production can be seen at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/schwankhalle/albums/72157618132201556/with/3637603143. Accessed on March 24 2018.
- 16.
Images of this production can be seen at: http://www.sebastiendupouey.net/swarze-jungfrauen.html; http://www.ninawetzel.net/ninawetzel.net/Schwarze_Jungfrauen.html; http://www.langeleine.de/?p=6889. All accessed on March 24 2018.
- 17.
This is further suggested by the accompanying surge in other semi-documentary and documentary theatre productions which focus on migration and postmigration in Germany. Examples of this genre include, to name only a few: Zaimoglu/Senkel’s own Schattenstimmen (Shadow Voices; Ballhaus Naunynstraße, 2008), a second documentary piece in the same vein, this time focused on illegal immigrants to Germany; Moschee.de (Mosque.de; Schauspiel Hannover, 2010) based on Robert Thalheim and Kolja Mensing’s research into reactions in a Berlin community to the building of a new Mosque; and Jenseits: Bist du schwul oder bist du Türke? (On the other side: Are you gay or are you Turkish?; Hebbel am Ufer, Berlin, 2008), Nurkan Erpulat’s documentary play exploring the intersection of supposed antithetical identities in contemporary Germany. More recently, in the wake of the current refugee crisis, this dramatic (or postdramatic) form has also had a key role to play in attempts to bring the narratives of this newer form of migration to the stage. Productions such as Marita Ragonese’s Heimat (n)irgendwo ([No]Where to call Home?; Theatre Bonn, 2011), and Nuran David Calis’ Brennpunkt X (Flashpoint X), which premiered in June 2015 at the Saarländisches Staatstheater, both use interview-based monologues as a rapid and emotive means of engaging their established audiences with the challenges faced by those caught up in the current refugee crisis. While much has been, and continues to be said, about the ethics of representation and power relations which this form involves, it is the structural element of this proliferation which brings me to interculturalism, a term I am going to use not to analyse the aesthetics of the productions at hand, but rather to explore the effect of policies promoting interculturalism on the institutional frameworks in which these productions emerge. For more on documentary responses to the refugee crisis in German theatre and beyond see the articles gathered in Sharifi and Wilmer’s 2016 special topic section of Critical Stages, particularly Sieg (2016).
- 18.
Almanya is the Turkish word for Germany. I therefore leave the title untranslated here.
- 19.
Images from that production and a selection of reviews are available at www.bofinder.de, a website dedicated to the production. Accessed on March 11 2013.
- 20.
This production took place prior to the arrival of Shermin Langhoff as artistic director. Film director Fatih Akin also cites dissatisfaction with the roles available to him as an actor as one of the factors which led him to begin directing films himself (Akin, quoted in Burns 2006, 142). A similar level of dissatisfaction within the theatrical sphere also led Turkish German actor and doctor Tuğsal Moğul to found theatre company “Theatre Operation.” More information on the company can be found here: http://theatre-operation.de/?page=Profil. Accessed on March 11 2013.
- 21.
For a critical engagement with interculturalism and the divergence between its rhetorical and actual place in the activities of Ruhr2010 see the essays collected in Ernst and Heimböckel (2012).
- 22.
Breger raises this issue with respect to the world premiere; however, she also concludes that the visual aesthetics and mode of encounter there force a renegotiation rather than reassertion of identity on the part of the spectator.
- 23.
This was a prose collection of artistically reworked interviews with young Turkish men from the “margins” of German society, mainly second or third generation “immigrants.” The Theatre Junges Bremen production is featured in the infamous encounter between Feridun Zaimoglu and Heide Simonis on the 3 nach 9 chat show, the transcript of which was reproduced in English as the prelude to Tom Cheesman’s monograph on Turkish German Literature (2007, 1–11). A recording of this can be accessed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrV7adgbcMc. Accessed on 30 November 2016. A large number of articles address Kanak Sprak, but Cheesman’s monograph also offers a good introduction to the text and a useful bibliography for further reading.
- 24.
For a very useful and detailed overview of the complex German subsidy system for theatre see Weiler (2014).
- 25.
Even where this was not the case, change often appears to have occurred on a more personal level: one director of a further production also explained that it had been a learning experience for her – in wanting to understand the monologues, she had learnt a lot about what she describes as another culture.
- 26.
Further projects span these two categories, such as the Maxim Gorki Theatre’s Exile Ensemble, which provides a working space for refugees who worked in theatres prior to having to leave their home countries.
- 27.
In the case of Black Virgins I would stress these perspectives should be considered as much those of the playwrights and original commissioners, as the women at the source of the monologues.
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Stewart, L. (2019). “The Future Market and the Current Reality”: Zaimoglu/Senkel’s Black Virgins and Interculturalism in the German Context. In: McIvor, C., King, J. (eds) Interculturalism and Performance Now. Contemporary Performance InterActions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02704-9_13
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