Abstract
Finally, Domingues gives pride of place to concreteness. It forces its way into political modernity, which tried to neutralize it. Initially featuring the nation and the people—particularly Michelet and Herder—as already concrete features of political modernity, concreteness is further discussed with reference to neopatrimonialism, social policy (with two strands: social citizenship, sectorialized policies and social liberalism) and a corresponding complexification of bureaucracy and the state by and large. Domingues stresses the re-personification of politics, once again against the backdrop of Schmitt’s ideas. Marshall plays an important role in the chapter, but many others are mobilized. The second part of the chapter grapples with methodological issues regarding developmental trends and mechanisms, in dialogue with Marx, Bhaskar and ‘path dependency’ arguments.
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Notes
- 1.
Jules Michelet, ‘Preface de 1869’, in Histoire de France, vol. 1 (Paris: A. Lacroix & Ce. Éditeurs, 1880).
- 2.
Ernest Renan, ‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation’? (1882), in Qu’est qu’une nation? et autres éscrits politiques (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1996).
- 3.
Otto Bauer, Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie (1907, 1924), in Werkausgabe, vol. 1 (Vienna: Europaverlag, 1975), especially pp. 88ff.
- 4.
Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, [1983] 2006); Anthony Smith, National Identity (London: Penguin, 1991); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Original Spread of Nationalism (London and New York: Verso, 1991); Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). Purely civic nations and the ‘patriotism of the constitution’ entice Jürgen Habermas, ‘Volkssouveränität als Verfahren’ (1988) and ‘Staatsbürgerschaft und nationale Identität’ (1990), in Faktizität und Geltung: Beiträge zur Diskurstheorie des Rechts und des demokratischen Rechtsstaat (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1992).
- 5.
B. Anderson, The Spectre of Comparisons: Nationalism, Southeast Asia, and the World (London and New York: Verso, 1998).
- 6.
Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Grundriβ der verstehenden Soziologie (Tübingen: J. C. B Mohr [Paul Siebeck], [1921–22] 1980), pp. 234–44.
- 7.
Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and State, AD 990–1992 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, revised edition), pp. 2–3.
- 8.
See Gerard Delanty (ed.), The Sage Handbook of Nations and Nationalism (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), especially T. K. Oomen’s chapter, ‘Nation and nationalism in South Asia’; Wang Hui, China from Empire to Nation-State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, [2004] 2014).
- 9.
See Maurizio Viroli, Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995).
- 10.
Jochen Schlobach, ‘People’, in Michel Delon (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment, vol. 1 (London and New York: Routledge, [1997] 2002); Margaret Canovan, The People (Cambridge: Polity, 2005).
- 11.
Carl Schmitt, Verfassungslehre (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, [1928] 1993), pp. 148–50. For those classical authors, John Locke, Second Treatise (1689), in Two Treatises on Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), chap. 7; Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Du Contrat social, ou principes du droit politique (1762), in Ouevres complètes, vol. II (Paris: Seuil, 1971), passim. He stressed the necessity of attending to customs and particularities of each country when the sovereign enacts and enforces its laws (chap. 1.6).
- 12.
Johann Gottfried Herder, Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache (Hamburg: Reclam, [1770] 1986); Idem, Auch ein Philosophie der Geschichte zur Bildung der Menschheit (Hamburg: Reclam, [1774] 1990). Michelet (op. cit.) also stressed the organic nature of nations.
- 13.
Pierre Rosanvallon, Le Peuple introuvable. Histoire de la représentation démocratique en France (Paris: Gallimard, 1998), pp. 15–23.
- 14.
Carl Schmitt, Der Begriff des Politischen (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot [1932] 2009).
- 15.
Cf. J. Michelet, Le Peuple (Paris: Flammarion, [1846] 1992).
- 16.
Ernesto Laclau, On Populist Reason (London: Verso, 2005).
- 17.
Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Refundación del Estado en América Latina (Lima: Instituto Internacional de Derecho y Sociedad, 2010). His postmodernism and post-colonialism overlook how bi/pluri-national states are common in modernity, though often seen as problematic.
- 18.
Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Dialektik der Aufklärung (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, [1944] 1984).
- 19.
Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of our Time (Boston: Beacon [1944] 2002); Robert Castel, Les Métamorphoses de la question sociale. Une cronique du salariat (Paris: Fayard, 1995); Ferenc Fehér, The Frozen Revolution: An Essay on Jacobinism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and Paris: Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1987), pp. 129ff.
- 20.
Partha Chatterjee, The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), pp. 28–29, 34ff.
- 21.
T. H. Marshall, ‘Citizenship and social class’ (1950), in Class, Citizenship and Social Development (Garden City NY: Double Day, 1964); Richard M. Titmuss, ‘The role of redistribution in social policy’ , Social Security Bulletin, vol. 26 (1965). Titmuss noted that welfare services, fiscal welfare and occupational welfare are related to different and contradictory principles, affecting differentially the middle and the popular classes.
- 22.
José Maurício Domingues, ‘From citizenship to social liberalism or beyond? Some theoretical and historical landmarks’, Citizenship Studies, vol. 21 (2017); Idem, ‘Social liberalism and global domination’ (2013), in Breno Bringel and Heriberto Cairo (eds), Critical Geopolitics and Regional Reconfigurations: Interregionalism and Transnationalism between Latin America and Europe (New York and London: Routledge, forthcoming).
- 23.
Titmuss, op. cit., p. 16.
- 24.
Marshall, op. cit.; Claus Offe, Strukturprobleme des kapitalistischen Staates (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1973), pp. 30–31, 38–40ff; Gosta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social-Democratic Road to Power (Princeton , NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988). A late social-democratic liberal, philosophical perspective—which resumes the social contract tradition, now outside natural law and rather neo-Kantian—became available with John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, [1971] 1999). Abstract ‘logocentrism’ is its hallmark, including the thought experiment and regulative idea of the ‘veil of ignorance’, within which individuals with no qualities might collectively redistribute benefits.
- 25.
Iris M. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1990] 2011).
- 26.
Karl Marx, ‘Kritik des Gothaer Programs’ (1875), in K. Marx and Friedrich Engels, Werke, vol. 19 (Berlin: Dietz, 1987), pp. 20–21.
- 27.
Jorge Sayeg Helú, El constitucionalismo social mexicano. La integración constitucional de México (1808–1988) (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1991).
- 28.
R. M. Titmuss, ‘What is social policy’ (1974), in Stepham Leibfried and Steffen Mau (eds), Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction (London: Edward Elgar, 2008), pp. 30–32. This classification was taken further by G. Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990). In another context, see Wanderley Guilherme dos Santos, Cidadania e justiça: a política social na ordem brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Campus, 1979). For Latin American twentieth century’s corporatism—within a social constitutionalist mould—Hobart Spalding Jr., Organized Labor in Latin America (New York: Harper & Row, 1987). The Arab world and the Middle East more generally developed their own brand of corporatism, for which see Kjetil Selvik and Stig Stensile, Stability and Change in the Middle East (London and New York: I. B. Taurus, 2011), pp. 56–60. In Chap. 4, a more directly political assessment of corporatism will be put forward.
- 29.
François Ewald, L’Etat providence (Paris: Grasset, 1986).
- 30.
K. Marx, Das Kapital. Kritik der politischen Ökonomie, especially vol. 1 (1867, 1873), in K. Marx and Friedrich Engels, Werke, vol. 23 (Berlin: Dietz, 1962); Luiz Werneck Vianna, Liberalismo e sindicato no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1976); with a more juridical perspective, Franz Z. Neumann, ‘Labor law in modern society’ (1951), in F. Z. Neumann and Otto Kirscheimer, W. E. Scheuerman (ed.), The Rule of Law under Siege (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996).
- 31.
This was not understood by Schmitt, op. cit., pp. 1ff.
- 32.
See Robert Alexy, Theorie der Grudrechte (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1985), chaps. 4, 9.
- 33.
Cf. Enzo Traverso, A ferro e fuoco. La guerra civile europea 1914–1945 (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2007).
- 34.
Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor, 1999). Elsewhere, prior to his more general take on development, he raised some interrogations as to the effectiveness of targeting and insisted on ‘capabilities’ (rather than poverty), without rejecting it. Idem, ‘The political economy of targeting’, in Dominique van de Walle and Kimberly Nead (eds), Public Expending and the Poor: Theory and Evidence (Baltimore, MD and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1992). His philosophical approach is however fully amenable, intrinsically inclined indeed, to the attribution of minimal resources to allow for basic (or actually minimal) ‘freedoms’.
- 35.
J. M. Domingues, Modernity Reconstructed (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, [2002] 2006), pp. 63–66.
- 36.
J. Habermas, ‘Kampf um Anerkennung in democratischen Rechsstaat’ (1993), in Die Einbeziehung des Anderen (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1996). For a philosophical discussion of sectorialized policies—‘groups politics’—see Young, op. cit.
- 37.
Santos, Refundación del Estado en América Latina., pp. 88ff.
- 38.
Gyorg Lukács, Geschichte und Klassenbewusstsein. Studien über Marxistische Dialektik (1923), in Werke, vol. 2 (Darmstadt: Luchterhand, 1977), p. 1.
- 39.
J. M. Domingues, ‘Democratic theory and democratization, in contemporary Brazil and beyond’, Thesis Eleven, vol. 114 (2013).
- 40.
J. Habermas, Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1981), chap. 8; Abram de Swaan, In Care of the State: Health Care, Education and Welfare in Europe and the USA in the Modern Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 232–33; Young, op. cit., chap. 3.
- 41.
Wilhelm von Humboldt, Ideen ein Versuch, die Gränzen der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen (Stuttgart: Reclam, [1792, 1851] 1991); Friedrich A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, [1944] 1994).
- 42.
J. M. Domingues, Social Creativity, Collective Subjectivity and Contemporary Modernity (Basingstoke: Macmillan and New York: Saint Martin’s Press, 2000), chap. 7.
- 43.
Weber, op. cit., pp. 499ff.
- 44.
Pierre Rosanvallon, Le Bon gouvernement (Paris: Seuil, 2015), p. 87.
- 45.
Neumann and Kirchheimer, op. cit.; F. Z. Neumann, The Rule of Law: Political Theory and the Legal System in Modern Society (Oxford: Berg, [1936] 1986) (their perspectives varying over time); Roberto Mangabeira Unger, Law in Modern Society (New York: Free Press, 1976), pp. 192ff; C. Schmitt, Legalität und Legitmität (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot [1932] 1998).
- 46.
Philippe Nonet and Philip Selznick, Law and Society in Transition: Toward Responsive Law (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Transaction, [1978] 2001), chap. 3.
- 47.
R. M. Unger, The Critical Legal Studies Movement: Another Time, a Greater Task (London and New York: Verso, [1983] 2015).
- 48.
Regina Quaresma, Maria Lúcia de Paula Oliveira and Farlei Martins Riccio Oliveira (eds), Neoconstitucionalismo (Rio de Janeiro: Forense, 2009). Many, sometimes disparate, currents have moved in this direction, including Alexy and Ferrajoli, as well as, to some extent, Dworkin. I have mobilized them at different stages in this book.
- 49.
Christopher Pierson, Beyond the Welfare State: The New Political Economy of Welfare (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006, 3rd edition); G. Esping-Andersen (ed.), Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptations in Global Economies (London: Sage, 1996); Jean Cohen, ‘Changing paradigms of citizenship and the exclusiveness of the demos’ , International Sociology, vol. 14 (1999).
- 50.
Shmuel N. Eisenstadt, Traditional Patrimonialism and Modern Neopatrimonialism (Beverly Hills, CA and London: Sage, 1973). I discussed this in a number of places—suggesting we recast this concept, as well as others, analytically, beyond its usual ideal-typical mould. This epistemological strategy would avoid the reification of an idealized form of the modern state. J. M. Domingues, Global Modernity, Development, and Contemporary Civilization: Towards a Renewal of Critical Theory (New York and London: Routledge, 2012), pp. 51, 85, 214, 222.
- 51.
C. Tilly, ‘War making and state making as organized crime’, in Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back in (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
- 52.
For Brazil, this was originally discussed by Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, Raízes do Brasil (São Paulo: Cia. das Letras, [1936] 1995, 26th edition). The argument does have more general validity.
- 53.
Georges Gurvitch, ‘Problème de sociologie du droit’, in Georg Gurvitch (ed.), Traité de sociologie, vol. 2 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1968); B. S. Santos, Toward a New Common Sense: Law, Science, and Politics in the Paradigmatic Transition (New York and London: Routledge, 1995); Antonio Carlos Wolkmer, Pluralismo jurídico. Fundamentos de uma nova cultura do direito (São Paulo: Alfa-Ômega, 2001, 3rd edition).
- 54.
Alexis de Tocqueville, L’Ancien Regime et la Révolution (Paris: Gallimard, [1856] 1952), Book II, chap. 4; Georg Jellinek, System des subjektiven öffentlichen Rechte (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, [1892, 1905] 2011), chap. 3; Gustavo Binenbojm, Uma teoria do direito administrativo. Direitos fundamentais, democracia e constitucionalização (Rio de Janeiro: Renovar, 2008). This is overlooked by Unger, op. cit., p. 54. The main treatise on the topic was, for a long time, Maurice Hariou, Droit administrative et droit publique (Paris: Recueil Sirey, [1882] 1927). It was very realistic about the imbalance between state and citizens, due to its power of ‘direct action’ and the system of ‘domination’ it implied, but mistakenly interpreted the French development of administration, based on centralization and the subordination of the judiciary, as a general trend.
- 55.
Weber, op. cit., pp. 394ff, 456ff, 510–13.
- 56.
Swaan, op. cit., pp. 11, 225–29, 230ff.
- 57.
Niklas Luhmann, ‘Theoretischeorientierung der Politik’ (1980), in Soziologische Aufklärung (Öpladen: Westdeutscher, 1981); B. Guy Peters, The Politics of Bureaucracy (White Plains, NY: Longman, 1995, 4th edition), chaps. 1–2.
- 58.
Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990), pp. 1ff, 112ff. I critically proposed a different conceptualization of ‘reflexivity’ in Domingues, Social Creativity, Collective Subjectivity and Contemporary Modernity, chap. 3.
- 59.
Habermas, Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns, pp. 489ff.
- 60.
Binenbojm, op. cit., pp. 29ff; This implies ‘optimization requirements’ of constitutional law, as argued by Alexy (op. cit., chap. 3), or the attention to general ‘principles’, as suggested by Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 38ff. Although they do not mean the same, both imply the role of values in guiding policies, against positivist legal perspectives.
- 61.
Antoine Garapon, Le Gardien des promesses. Justice et democratie (Paris: Odile Jacob, 1996).
- 62.
Michel Foucault, Surveiller et punir: naissance de la prison (Paris: Gallimard, 1975); Idem, Histoire de la sexualité, vol. 1. La volonté de savoir (Paris: Gallimard, 1984); Idem, Naissance de la biopolitique. Cours au Collège de France, 1977–1978 (Paris: Gallimard/Seuil, 2004); Idem, Il faut defendre la société. Cours au Collège de France, 1976 (Paris: Gallimard/Seuil, 1997); Idem, Sécurité, territoire, population. Cours au Collège de France, 1977–1978 (Paris: Gallimard/Seuil, 2009).
- 63.
R. M. Unger, What Should Legal Analysis become? (London: Verso, 1986), pp. 34ff. In any case, the ‘juridical field’ has concrete aspects that distinguish it from its imaginary model. Pierre Bourdieu, ‘La force du droit. Éléments pour une sociologie du champ juridique’, Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, vol. 64 (1986).
- 64.
Norberto Bobbio, L’etat dei diritto (Turin: Einaudi, [1990] 1997), chap. 5.
- 65.
If in the US there was a half-failed effort to check the power of the presidency, since the nineteenth-century Latin America has had a penchant for strong presidentialism, including originally, with a very skewed reading of that former experience, Simón Bolívar, ‘Discurso pronunciado ante el Congreso, en Angustura, el 15 de febrero de 1819’, in Discursos y proclamas (Caracas: Fundación Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2007); Juan Bautista Alberdi, ‘Bases y puntos de partida para la organización de la república argentina, derivados de la ley que preside al desarrollo de la civilización en la América del Sur’ (1852), in Política y sociedad en Argentina (Caracas: Fundación Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005), chap. 23; Justo Sierra, Evolución política del pueblo mexicano (Caracas: Fundación Biblioteca Ayacucho, [1990–1902] 1997), pp. 327–28. The fragility of the state, the risk of fragmentation and the lack of law enforcement bolstered the main argument. The Brazilian ‘constitutional’ monarchy, with symbolic representation concentrated in the executive, included a fake role for the ‘moderating power’, which really governed almost unimpeded. For an overview, Roberto Gargarella, La sala de máquinas de la constitución. Dos siglos de constitucionalismo en América latina (1810–2010) (Buenos Aires: Katz, 2014).
- 66.
Rosanvallon , Le Bon gouvernement, pp. 69ff, 111ff, 155ff, where he not very convincingly points to courts and other agencies charged with keeping generality and impersonality; Weber, ‘Der Reichspräsident’ (1919), p. 501, and ‘Parlament und Regierung in neugeordneten Deutschland’ (1918), in Gesammelte politische Schriften (Tübingen: J. C. B Mohr [Paul Siebeck] 1988); Schmitt, Der Begriff des Politischen.
- 67.
The literature is boundless, but see Colin Haydon and William Doyle (eds), Robespierre (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1999), especially the chapters by David P. Jordan and Marisa Linton.
- 68.
C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobin: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, [1938] 1963). Not only personification, but the social question and state rational expediency, under a personal autocracy, can be spotted already there, as much as in metropolitan France’s post-Thermidorian Consulate. San Domingo revolution included, however, a new agenda: anti-colonialism and anti-racism.
- 69.
Étienne Balibar, ‘La proposition de l’égaliberté’ (1989), in La Proposition de l‘égaliberté (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2010).
- 70.
Critical Legal Studies frowned upon this. Cf. Unger, What Should Legal Analysis Become?, pp. 36ff, 51ff, 72, though, more optimistically, 129ff.
- 71.
Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City, NY: Double Day, 1967); José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1994); Ashis Nandy, ‘The politics of secularism and the recovery of religious tolerance’ (1990), in Times Warp: Silent and Evasive Pasts in Indian Politics and Religion (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002); T. N. Madan, Modern Myths, Locked Minds: Secularism and Fundamentalism in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997); Abdel Salam Sidahmed and Anoushiravan Ehteshami (eds), Islamic Fundamentalism (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996); J. M. Domingues, ‘Global modernity, levels of analysis and conceptual strategies’ (2013), in Emancipation and History: The Return of Social Theory (Leiden: Brill, 2017 and Chicago: Haymarket, 2018). Marxism of course has held a similar standpoint: ‘religion’ is ‘false consciousness’ (whether it would be totally overcome answered more dubiously by the founders).
- 72.
For opposing views, see especially Eugenio Raúl Zaffaroni, ‘La naturaleza como persona: Pachamama y Gaia’, in Alberto Acosta and Esperanza Martínez (eds), La naturaleza con derechos. De la filosofía a la política (Quito: Abya Yala, 2011); Farid Simón Campaña, ‘Derechos de la naturaleza: innovación trascendental, retórica jurídica o proyecto político’, Iuris Dicto, año 13, vol. 15 (2013). One could argue that Kelsen’s notion of reflex rights offers a solution for the problem. This would apply however only if we accept a subjective natural rights position that lies behind his reasoning. Further discussion of the issue is of course required, including the supposed hybridization with Andean cosmological principles—Sumak Kawsay—undergirding this conception of nature. Whatever the precise definition and whether a ‘dualism’ or merely a ‘differentiation’ and ‘boundary’ between human beings and nature is supposed, especially regarding the status of the fable of the ‘state of nature’, from which we have lifted ourselves through reason (or our own hair), the issue seems to change little in this regard. See John M. Meyer, Political Nature: Environmentalism and the Interpretation of Western Thought (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001). What is more, we cannot derive politics directly from a conception of nature—nor, of course, the other way around. For a notion of science as composing as field of ‘sub-politics’, see Ulrich Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg ein andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1986). Bluntly stating the dualism with respect to the political dimension and, rather fancifully, proposing to go beyond it, check Bruno Latour, Politiques de la nature. Comment faire entrer les sciences en démocratie (Paris: La Découverte, 1999).
- 73.
Roy Bhaskar, A Realist Theory of Science (Leeds: Leeds Books, 1975); Idem, The Possibility of Naturalism (New York and London: Routledge, [1979] 1988). For my own take on the discussion, J. M. Domingues, ‘Global modernity, levels of analysis and conceptual strategies’; Idem, ‘Realism, trend-concepts and the modern state’ (2016), in Emancipation and History.
- 74.
Reinhart Bendix, ‘Tradition and modernity reconsidered’ (1967), in Nation-Building and Citizenship: Studies of our Changing Social Order (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, [1977] 2007), pp. 390–92. Empiricism mars the otherwise perceptive approach to trend-concepts of Raymond Boudon, La Place du désordre (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, [1984] 2004).
- 75.
K. Marx, Das Kapital. Kritik der politischen Ökonomie, vol. 1 (1867, 1873), in K. Marx and Friedrich Engels, Werke, vol. 23 (Berlin: Dietz, 1962); vol. 3 (1894), in K. Marx and F. Engels, Werke, vol. 25 (Berlin: Dietz, [1894] 1964).
- 76.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophische Untersuchungen/Philosophical Investigations (Malden, MA and Oxford: Willey Blackwell [1953] 2009), § 24, p. 15, § 49, p 28, §70, p. 38, § 75, p. 40, § 109, p. 59, §§ 37–38, pp. 96–71.
- 77.
Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957).
- 78.
Piet Strydom, Discourse and Knowledge: The Making of Enlightenment Sociology (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000); J. M. Domingues, Latin America and Contemporary Modernity: A Sociological Interpretation (New York and London: Routledge, 2008), p. 34.
- 79.
Wendy Brown, States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 4, 12, chaps. 5, 7. This relates to ‘moulding’, to be discussed in Chap. 5.
- 80.
Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of our Time (Boston, MA: Beacon, [1944] 2001). A different view of disembedding processes will be introduced in Chap. 6.
- 81.
The literature on ‘path dependency’ is extremely complex, excessively so, frequently based on rational action and related ‘costs’. It is geared towards processes more specific than the large historical trends we have been fastening upon here. Their emphasis on early events must, at any rate, be softened. Douglass C. North, Understanding the Process of Economic Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); John Mahoney, ‘Path dependency in historical sociology’, Theory and Society, vol. 9 (2000); Paul Pierson, Politics in Time: History, Institutions, and Social Analysis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).
- 82.
J. M. Domingues, ‘History, sociology, modernity’ (2016), in Emancipation and History.
- 83.
Idem, Global Modernity, Development, and Contemporary Civilization.
- 84.
Idem, Sociological Theory and Collective Subjectivity (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press and New York: Saint Martin’s Press [Palgrave], 1995); Social Creativity, Collective Subjectivity and Contemporary Modernity.
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Domingues, J.M. (2019). From Abstract to Concrete. In: Critical Theory and Political Modernity. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02001-9_3
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