Abstract
For risk evaluation one needs to know the toxicity of the compound and its uses, since the actual use pattern determines the level of exposure. This is the case for the mixing, loading and application of pesticides, as well as for re-entry exposure, i.e. exposure after application. For the present overview the emphasis is on the various aspects of the exposure of harvesters and other workers in a crop. The level of exposure caused by re-entry is determined by the amount available in the surroundings of the worker, i.e. the amount present in air (still available after application as vapour and/or aerosols, or available by evaporation from crop, soil, objects, or materials present), or brought into the air by the workers activities (e.g. resuspension of deposited residues) and the degree of contact of the worker with contaminated surfaces (mainly the crop itself). The resulting potential exposure, defined as the amount that reaches the worker from the environment by deposition, contact or inhalation, is very important for generic purposes. The potential exposure may be determined by the chemical properties of the pesticide but it is certainly determined by the physical parameters related to the type of crop, physical properties of the pesticide and the nature of the operations of the worker. The major advantage of the concept of potential exposure is given by the fact that the actual clothing of the worker has no influence on the potential exposure. This is, however, also its major disadvantage since for the assessment of systemic uptake of the pesticide through the skin, by inhalation or by swallowing, the actual exposure and the degree of absorption must be known. The actual skin exposure is defined as the amount that reaches the skin and becomes therefore available for absorption through the skin. For inhalation and oral exposure, the potential and actual exposure are (without respiratory protective equipment) generally much more similar than for dermal exposure.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Bates, J.A.R., 1990, The prediction of pesticide residues in crops by the optimum use of existing data, Pure Appl. Chem. 62: 337–350.
Brouwer, D.H., Brouwer, R., and Van Hemmen, J.J., 1990, Respiratory exposure to field strength dusts in greenhouses during application and re-entry, in: “Book of Abstracts Seventh International Congress of Pesticide Chemistry”, H. Frehse, E. Kessler-Schmitz and S. Conway, eds., Vol. III, p. 375, IUPAC, Hamburg, Germany.
Brouwer, D.H., Brouwer, R., De Mik, G., Maas, C.L., and Van Hemmen, J.J., 19928, Pesticides in the cultivation of carnations in greenhouses: Part I–Exposure and concomitant health risk, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 53: 575–581.
Brouwer, D.H., De Vreede, J.A.F., Ravensberg, J.C., Engel, R., and Van Hemmen, J.J., 1992d, Dissipation of aerosols from greenhouse air after application of pesticides using a low-volume technique. Implications for safe re-entry, Chemosphere 24: 1157–1169.
Brouwer, R., Brouwer, D.H., Tijssen, S.C.H.A., and Van Hemmen, J.J., 1992h, Pesticides in the cultivation of carnations in greenhouses: Part II–Relationship between foliar residues and exposures, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 53: 582–587.
Brouwer, R., Van Maarleveld, K., Ravensherg, L., Meuling, W., De Kort, W., and Van Hemmen, J.J., 1993, Skin contamination, airborne concentrations and urinary metabolite excretion of propoxur during harvesting of flowers in greenhouses, Am. J. Ind. Med. 24: 593–603.
Brouwer, R., Marquart, H., De Mik, G., and Van Hemmen, J.J., 1992`, Risk assessment of dermal exposure of greenhouse workers to pesticides after re-entry, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 23: 273–280.
Chester, G., 1993, Evaluation of worker exposure to, and absorption of, pesticides during occupational use and crop re-entry, Ann. Occup. Hyg. 37: 509–523.
Dong, M.H., Krieger, R.I., and Ross, J.H., 1992, Calculated reentry interval for table grape harvesters working in California vineyards treated with methomyl, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 49: 708714.
Dong, M.H., Saiz, S.C., Mehler, L.N., and Ross, J.H., 1991, Determination of crop-specific parameters used in foliar mass to area conversion: I. For selected varieties of grapes, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 46: 542–549.
Ebeling, W., 1963, Analysis of the basic processes involved in the deposition, degradation, persistence and effectiveness of pesticides, Residue Rev. 3: 35–163.
Fiserova-Bergerova, V., 1993, Relevance of occupational skin exposure, Paper presented during the workshop on Occupational Skin Exposure to Chemical Substances, First International Scientific Conference on Occupational Hygiene in Brussels, 1992, Ann. Occup. Hyg. 37: 673–685.
Goedicke, H.-J., 1987, Rückstände von Pflanzenschutzmitteln auf Pflanzenoberflächen als Quelle für Intoxikationen and Möglichkeiten der Expositionsnormierung, Z. ges. Hyg. 33: 339–342.
Goedicke, H.-J., 1988’, Zum Rückstandsverhalten von Pflanzenschutzmitteln an Pflanzenoberflächen, Z. ges. Hyg. 34: 279–282.
Goedicke, H.-J., 1988“, Zum Rückstandsverhalten von pirimiphos-methyl auf Tomaten, Blatt-and Bodenoberflächen im Gewächshaus, Nahrung 5: 475–480.
Goedicke, H.-J., 1989, Exposition durch Rückstände auf Blattoberflächen nach Anwendung von phosphororganischen Insektiziden im intensiven Apfelanbau, Z. ges. Hyg. 35: 533–535.
Goedicke, H.-J., Hermes, H., and Wagner, R., 1989, Exposition durch Rückstände auf Pflanzenoberflächen nach Anwendung von Pflanzenschutzmitteln im Gewächshaus, Z. ges. Hyg. 35: 531–533.
Grandjean, P., 1990, “Skin Penetration. Hazardous Chemicals at Work”, Taylor & Francis, London, England.
Gunther, F.A., Iwata, Y., Carman, G.E., and Smith, C.A., 1977, The citrus reentry problem: Research on its causes and effects, and approaches to its minimalization, Residue Rev. 67: 1–139.
Iwata, Y., Knaak, J.B., Spear, R.C., and Foster, R.J., 1977, Worker reentry into pesticide-treated crops I. Procedure for the determination of dislodgable pesticide residues on foliage, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 18: 649–655.
Jauhiainen, A., Kangas, J., Laitinen, S., and Savolainen, K., 1992, Biological monitoring of workers exposed to mevinphos in greenhouses, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 49: 37–43.
Kangas, J., Laitinen, S., Jauhiainen, A., and Savolainen, K., 1992, Exposure of Workers to Mevinphos in Greenhouses. Poster presented at a workshop on Occupational Skin Exposure to Chemical Substances of the First International Scientific Conference on Occupational Hygiene in Brussels.
Kangas, J., Laitinen, S., Jauhiainen, A., and Savolainen, K., 1993, Exposure of sprayers and plant handlers to mevinphos in Finnish greenhouses, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 54: 150–157.
Krieger, R., Blewett, C., Edmiston, C., Fong, H., Gibbons, D., Meinders, D., O’Connell, L., Ross, J., Schneider, F., Spencer, J., and Thongsinthusak, T., 1990, Gauging pesticide exposure of handlers (mixer/loader/applicators) and harvesters in California agriculture, Med. Lay. 81: 474–479.
Krieger, R.I., Ross, J.H., and Thongsinthusak, T., 1992, Assessing human exposure to pesticides, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 129: 1–15.
Liesivuori, J., Lihkkonen, S., and Pirhonen, P., 1988, Re-entry intervals after pesticide application in greenhouses, Scand. J. Environ. Health 14, Suppl. 1: 35–36.
Lindquist, R.K., Krueger, H.R., and Powell, C.C., 1987, Airborne and surface residues of permethrin after high-and low-volume applications in greenhouses, J. Environ. Sci. Health B22: 15–27.
Löbel, H., and Schunk, W., 1982, Zur Exposition und Gesundheitsgefährdung der Werktätigen in
Gewächshausern durch Rückstände cholinesterasehemmender Pflanzenschutzmittel, Z. ges. Hyg. 28:697–699.
Maddy, K.T., Edmiston, S., and Richmond, D., 1990, Illnesses, injuries, and deaths from pesticide exposures in California 1949–1988, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 114: 57–123.
Mitchell, M.F., Iyengar, S., and Curry, P., 1993, Re-entry exposure assessment, manuscript in preparation, Workplace Substances and Pesticides Division, Environmental Health Directorate, Health and Welfare Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
Morse, D.L., Baker, E.L., and Landrigan, P.J., 1979, Cut flowers: A potential pesticide hazard, Am. J. Public Health 69: 53–56.
Nigg, H.N., 1980, Prediction of agricultural worker safety reentry times for organo-phosphate insecticides, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 41: 340–345.
Nigg, H.N., Stamper, J.H., and Queen, R.M., 1984, The development and use of a universal model to predict tree crop harvester pesticide exposure, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 45: 182–186.
Popendorf, W.J., 1985, Advances in the unified field model for reentry hazards, in: “Dermal Exposure Related to Pesticide Use. Discussion of Risk Assessment”, R.C. Honeycutt, G. Zweig and N.N. Ragsdale, eds., ACS Symp. Series 273:323–340, American Chemical Society
Washington, D.C. Popendorf, W., 1992, Reentry field data and conclusions, Rev. Environ. Contam. Tox. 128: 71–117.
Popendorf, W.J., and Leffingwell, J.T., 1982, Regulating organophosphate residues for worker protection, Residue Rev. 82: 125–201.
Quinby, G.E., and Lemmon, A.B., 1958, Parathion residues as a cause of poisoning in crop workers, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 166: 740–746.
Raheel, M., 1991, Pesticide transmission in fabrics: Effect of perspiration, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 46: 837–844.
Serat, W.F., Mengle, D.C., Anderson, H.P., Kahn, E., and Bailey, J.B., 1975, On the estimation of worker entry intervals into pesticide treated fields with and without the exposure of human subjects, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13: 506–512.
Stamper, J.H., Nigg, H.N., and Allen, J.C., 1979, Organophosphate insecticide disappearance from leaf surfaces: An alternative to first-order kinetics, Environ. Sci. Technol. 13: 1402–1405.
Timme, G., Frese, H., and Laska, V., 1986, Zur statistischen Interpretation und graphischen Darstellung des Abbauverhaltens von Pflanzenbehandlungsmittel-Rückständen II, Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten Bayer 39: 188–204.
van Hemmen, J.J., 1993, Re-entry exposure and product development. Pesticides and greenhouse crops: An example, presented in Brussels, June 1993 at a seminar on Agrochemical Occupational Risk Assessment. The Future, Jellinek, Schwartz & Connolly, Inc., Washington, DC, USA.
van Hemmen, J.J., Brouwer, R., and Brouwer, D.H., 1992, Worker exposure to pesticides in greenhouses. Health risks during harvesting of flowers, Med. Fac. Landbouww. Univ. Gent. 57 /36: 1269–1283.
Williams, I.H., 1978, Dissipation of sulfotep and nicotine in a greenhouse atmosphere following their use as fumigants, J. Environ. Sci. Health B13: 235–241.
Williams, D.T., Denley, H.V., and Lane, D.A., 1980, On site determination of sulfotep air levels in a fumigating greenhouse, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 41: 647–651.
Willis, G.H., and McDowell, L.L., 1987, Pesticide persistence on foliage, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 100: 23–73.
Woollen, B.H., 1993, Biological monitoring for pesticide exposure, Ann. Occup. Hyg. 37 (5): 525–540.
Zweig, G., Leffingwell, J.T., and Popendorf, Wm., 1985, The relationship between dermal exposure by fruit harvesters and dislodgeable foliar residues, J. Environ. Sci. Health B20: 27–59.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
van Hemmen, J.J., van Golstein Brouwers, Y.G.C., Brouwer, D.H. (1995). Pesticide Exposure and Re-Entry in Agriculture. In: Curry, P.B., Iyengar, S., Maloney, P.A., Maroni, M. (eds) Methods of Pesticide Exposure Assessment. NATO · Challenges of Modern Society, vol 19. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0973-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0973-2_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0975-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0973-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive