Abstract
Mothers of young children are in the labor force in record numbers: Over half (66%) of mothers with children under 18 years of age work outside the home or are seeking employment (Hayghe, 1986). In recent years, the fastest growing segment of the work force has been among mothers of very young children: In 1985, 51% of married women with children under 3 were entering or reentering the work force soon after giving birth (Hayghe, 1986). When employed, many of these women (65%) with young children are likely to work full-time.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Wittig, B. A. (1969). Attachment and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 111–136). London: Methuen.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Arend, R., Gove, F., & Sroufe, L. A. (1979). Continuity of individual adaptation from infancy to kindergarten: A predictive study of ego-resiliency and curiosity in preschoolers. Child Development, 50, 950–959.
Barglow, P., Vaughn, B., & Molitor, N. (1987). Effects of maternal absence due to employment on the quality of infant-mother attachment in a low-risk sample. Child Development, 58, 945–954.
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4 (1).
Berndt, T. (1983). Peer relationships in children of working parents: A theoretical analysis and some conclusions. In C. D. Hayes & S. B. Kamerman (Eds.), Children of working parents (pp. 1–12). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Block, J. H. (1965). The Child Rearing Practices Report: A set of Q-items for the description of parental socialization attitudes and values. Berkeley, CA: Institute of Human Development, University of California.
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In A. Collins (Ed.), Minnesota Symposium of Child Psychology, 13, 39–101. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal care and mental health. Geneva: WHO; London: HMSO; New York: Columbia University Press.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Brazelton, T. B. (1986). Issues for working parents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56(1), 14–25.
Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: Retrospect and Prospect. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 3–35.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Crouter, A. (1982). Work and family through time and space. In S. Kamerman & C. Hayes (Eds.), Families that work: Children in a changing world. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U., Henderson, C, Alvarez, W., & Cochran, M. (1982). The relation of the mother’s work status to parents’ spontaneous descriptions of their children. Ithaca, New York: Dept. of Human Development and Family Studies, Cornell University.
Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Owen, M. T. (1987). Maternal employment in a family context: Effects on infant-mother and infant-father attachments. Child Development, 58, 1505–1512.
Cleary, P. D., & Mechanic, D. (1983). Sex differences in psychological distress among married people. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 111–121.
Cohler, B. J., Weiss, J. L., & Grunebaum, H. U. (1966). The Maternal-Attitude Scale: A questionnaire for studying child rearing attitudes in mothers of young children. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University, Cambridge.
Douvan, E. (1963). Employment and the adolescent. In F. I. Nye & L. W. Hoffman (Eds.), The employed mother in America (pp. 142–164). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Easterbrooks, M. A., & Goldberg, W. A. (1985). Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers. Developmental Psychology, 21(5), 774–783.
Easterbrooks, M. A., & Goldberg, W. A. (in press). Security of toddler-parent attachment: Relation to children’s socio-personality functioning during kindergarten. In M. Green-berg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research and intervention. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Erickson, M. F., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (1985). The relationship between quality of attachment and behavior problems in preschool in a high-risk sample. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 147–166.
Gamble, T., & Zigler, E. (1986). Effects of infant day care: Further look at the evidence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56(1), 26–42.
Gold, D., & Andres, P. (1978). Developmental comparisons between 10-year-old children with employed and non-employed mothers. Child Development, 49, 75–84.
Hansburg, H. G. (1980). Adolescent separation anxiety: A method for the study of adolescent separation problems. New York: Krieger.
Hayes, C. D., & Kamerman, S. B. (1983). Conclusions and recommendations. In C. D. Hayes & S. B. Kamernon (Eds.), Children of working parents (pp. 220–247). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hayghe, H. (1986). Rise in mothers’ labor force activity includes those with infants. Monthly Labor Review, 109(2), 43–45.
Hock, E. (1980). Working and non-working mothers and their infants: A comparative study of maternal caregiving characteristics and infant social behavior. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 26(2), 79–101.
Hoffman, L. W. (1974). Effects of maternal employment in the child—A review of the research. Developmental Psychology, 10, 204–229.
Hoffman, L. W. (1984). Maternal employment and the young child. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), Parent-child interaction and parent-child relations in child development. The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 197 pp. 101–127). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University.
Izard, C. (1972). Patterns of emotion. New York: Academic Press.
Izard, C., Dougherty, F., Bloxom, B., & Kotsch, W. E. (1974). The Differential Emotions Scale: A method of measuring the subjective experience of discrete emotions. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University.
Kagan, J., Kearsley, R., & Zelazo, P. (1978). Infancy: Its place in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kessler, R. C., & McRae, J. A., Jr. (1982). The effect of wives’ employment on the mental health of married men and women. American Sociological Review, 47, 216–227.
Klagsbrun, M., & Bowlby, J. (1976). Responses to separation from parents: A clinical test for young children. British Journal of Projective Psychology, 21, 7–21.
Lamb, M. E., Frodi, A., Hwang, P., & Frodi, M. (1982). Mother-and father-infant interaction involving play and holding in traditional and non-traditional Swedish families. Developmental Psychology, 18, 215–221.
Lazarus, I., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1987). Discovery of an insecure disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern: Procedures, findings, and implications for the classification of behavior. In M. Yogman & T. B. Brazelton (Eds.), Affective development in infancy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 66–104.
Matas, L., Arend, R. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1978). Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competence. Child Development, 49, 547–556.
Owen, M. T., Easterbrooks, M. A., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Goldberg, W. A. (1984). The relation between maternal employment status and the stability of attachments to mother and to father. Child Development, 55, 1894–1901.
Pedersen, F. A., Cain, R. L., Zaslow, M., & Anderson, B. J. (1982). Variation in infant experience associated with alternative family roles. In L. Laosa & I. Sigel (Eds.), Families as learning environments for children (pp. 203–221). New York: Plenum Press.
Rapoport, R., & Rapoport, R. (1976). Dual-career families re-examined. New York: Harper & Row.
Rosenfield, S. (1980). Sex differences in depression: Do women always have higher rates? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 33–42.
Rosenfield, S. (1984). Sex differences in mental health: Explanations for relative risk. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, San Antonio, TX.
Rutter, M. (1984). Continuities and discontinuities in socio-emotional development. In R. N. Emde & R. J. Harmon (Eds.), Continuities and discontinuities in development (pp. 41–68). New York: Plenum Press.
Rutter, M., Quinton, D., & Liddle, C. (1983). Parenting in two generations: Looking backwards and looking forwards. In N. Madge (Ed.), Families at risk (pp. 60–98). London: Heinemann.
Spitz, R. (1946). Anaclitic depression. Psychoanalytic study of the child, 2, 313–42.
Suomi, S., & Harlow, H. (1978). Early experience and social development in rhesus monkeys. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), Social and personality development (pp. 252–271). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Sroufe, L. A. (1983). Infant-caregiver attachment and patterns of adaptation in preschool: The roots of maladaptation and competence. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), Minnesota symposium in child psychology, 16 (pp. 41–81). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Vaughn, B., Egeland, B., Sroufe, L. A., & Waters, E. (1979). Individual differences in infant-mother attachment at twelve and eighteen months: Stability and change in families under stress. Child Development, 50, 971–975.
Vaughn, B., Gove, F., & Egeland, B. (1980). The relationship between out-of-home care and the quality of infant-mother attachment in an economically disadvantaged population. Child Development, 51, 1203–1214.
Zigler, E. (1987). Childcare for parents who work outside the home: Problems and solutions. Invited address to the meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore.
Zigler, E., & Muenchow, S. (1983). Infant day care and infant-care leaves. American Psychologist, 38, 91–94.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1988 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Goldberg, W.A., Easterbrooks, M.A. (1988). Maternal Employment When Children Are Toddlers and Kindergartners. In: Gottfried, A.E., Gottfried, A.W. (eds) Maternal Employment and Children’s Development. Springer Studies in Work and Industry. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0830-8_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0830-8_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0832-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0830-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive