Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Operant Conditioning The Hiatus between Theory and Practice in Clinical Psychology

  • Chapter
Book cover Theoretical Foundations of Behavior Therapy

Part of the book series: Perspectives on Individual Differences ((PIDF))

Abstract

The application of operant conditioning principles, characterized variously as behavior modification or applied behavior analysis, has become widespread in clinical psychology. A central theoretical assumption underlying this approach is that operant principles, originally derived from the study of animals in controlled experimental settings, have general applicability, governing not only the behavior of animals but also that of humans. In their early work, Skinner and others showed that animal behavior was an orderly function of contingencies of reinforcement so that any particular performance, on a schedule of reinforcement for instance, could be analyzed within the framework of the “three-term contingency,” that is, the relationship between responses, reinforcers, and discriminative stimuli. The response was usually the operation of some mechanical device like a lever; the reinforcer was typically food, and discriminative stimuli were environmental events, such as the illumination of colored lights. All of these variables were publicly observable events. The creation of explanatory fictions, “events taking place somewhere else, at some other level of observation” (Skinner, 1950), was eschewed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. H. (1964). Reinforcement and instructions with mental patients. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 7, 327–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. H. (1968). The token economy: A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, R., Hall, J. N., Hutchinson, K., & Bridge, G. (1977). Symptom changes in chronic schizophrenic patients on a token economy: A controlled experiment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 381–393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beech, H. R. (1974). Behaviour therapy. In P. Morris (Ed.), Behaviourism, (pp. 85–115) Milton Keynes, UK: The Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bern, S. L. (1967). Verbal self-control: The establishment of effective self-instruction. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74,485–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentall, R. P., Lowe, C. F., & Beasty, A. (1983). Does language produce behavioural rigidity in humans? Behaviour Analysis Letters, 3, 251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentall, R. P., Lowe, C. F., & Beasty, A. (1985). The role of verbal behavior in human learning II: Developmental differences. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 43, 165–181.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentall, R. P., Lowe, C. F., & Higson, P. (1984). Teaching verbal self-regulation to chronic schizophrenic patients: Efficacy and generalisation. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 15, 58–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackman, D. E. (1983). On cognitive theories of animal learning: Extrapolation from humans to animals? In G. C. L. Davey (Ed.), Animal models of human behavior (pp. 37–50). Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloomfield, T. M. (1976). About Skinner: Notes on the theory and practice of “Radical Behaviourism.” Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 6, 75–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulougouris, J. C. (Ed.). (1982). Learning theory approaches to psychiatry. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Branch, M. N., & Malagodi, E. F. (1980). Where have all the behaviorists gone? The Behavior Analyst, 3, 31–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W. P. (1974). There is no convincing evidence for operant or classical conditioning in adult humans. In W. B. Weiner & D. S. Palermo (Eds.), Cognition and the symbolic processes (pp. 1–42). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catania, A. C. (1984). Learning (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catania, A. C., Matthews, B. A., & Shimoff, E. (1982). Instructed versus shaped human verbal behavior: Interactions with nonverbal responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 38, 233–248.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chomsky, N. (1975) Reflections on language. Glasgow, UK: William Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, M., Liebson, I. A., & Faillace, L. A. (1971). The role of reinforcement contingencies in chronic alcoholism: An experimental analysis of one case. Behavior Research and Therapy, 9, 375–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, M., Liebson, I. A., & Faillace, L. A. (1972). A technique for establishing controlled drinking in chronic alcoholics. Diseases of the Nervous System, 33, 46–49.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, M., Liebson, I. A., & Faillace, L. A. (1973). Controlled drinking by chronic alcoholics over extended periods of free access. Psychological Reports, 32, 1107–1110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crowe, M. J. (1978). Behavioural approaches to marital and family problems. In R. N. Gaince & B. L Hudson (Eds.), Current themes in psychiatry1. (pp. 257–274). London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey, G. C. L. (1981). Animal learning and conditioning. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, A. (1980). Contemporary animal learning theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, A. (1985). Actions and habits: The development of behavioral autonomy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, 67–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietz, S. M. (1978). Current status of applied behavior analysis: Science versus technology. American Psychologist, 33, 805–814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epling, W. F., & Pierce, W. D. (1986). The basic importance of applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 9, 89–100.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foreyt, J. P. (1977). Behavioral treatments of obesity. New York: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franks, C. M., & Wilson, G. T. (1974). Annual review of behavior therapy and practice. New York: Brunner/ Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. N., Baker, R. D., & Hutchinson, K. (1977). A controlled evaluation of token economy procedures with chronic schizophrenic patients. Behavior Research and Therapy, 15, 261–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harré, R., & Secord, P. F. (1972). The explanation of social behaviour. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Rincover, A., & Solnick, J. (1980). The technical drift of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 275–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Brownstein, A. J., Zettle, R. D., Rosenfarb, I., & Korn, Z. (1986). Rule-governed behavior and sensitivity to changing consequences of responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 45, 237–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hefferline, R. F., Keenan, B., & Harford, R. A. (1959). Escape and avoidance conditioning in human subjects without their observation of the response. Science, 130, 1338–1339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, S., & Tramontana, J. (1971). Instructions and group versus individual reinforcement in modifying disruptive group behaviour. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 113–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higson, P. J., Woods, P. A., Tannahill, M. M., & Ellis, N. C. (1985). The role of meals as a reinforcing event in a token economy programme. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 170–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homme, L., Csanzi, A., Gonzales, M., & Rechs, J. (1970). How to use contingency contracting in the classroom. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Honig, W. K. (1978). Studies of working memory in the pigeon. In S. H. Hulse, H. Fowler, & W. K. Honig (Eds.), Cognitive processes in animal behavior (pp. 1–14). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1977). The token economy: A review and evaluation. New York: Plenum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1982). The token economy: A decade later. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 431–445.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., & Hollon, S. D. (1979). Cognitive-behavioral interventions: Theory, research and procedures. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koestler, A. (1967) The ghost in the machine. London: Hutchinson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohler, F. W., & Greenwood, C. R. (1986). Towards a technology of generalisation: The identification of natural contingencies of reinforcement. The Behavior Analyst, 9, 19–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laurenti-Lions, L., Gallego, J., Chambille, B., Vardon, G., & Jacquemin, C. (1985). Control of myoelectrical responses through reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 44, 185–193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leander, J. D., Lippman, L. G., & Meyer, M. E. (1968). Fixed-interval performance as related to subjects’ verbalizations of the reinforcement contingency. Psychological Record, 18, 469–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ledgwidge, B. (1978). Cognitive-behavior modification: A step in the wrong direction? Psychological Bulletin, 85, 353–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. A. (1979). Behaviour modification is not cognitive and other myths: A reply to Ledgwidge. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 3, 119–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F. (1979). Determinants of human operant behaviour. In M. D. Zeiler & P. Harzern (Eds.), Advances in analysis of behaviour (Vol. 1): Reinforcement and the organisation of behaviour (pp. 159–192). Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F. (1983). Radical behaviourism and human psychology. In G. C. L. Davey (Ed.), Animal models and human behaviour: Conceptual, evolutionary and neurobiological perspectives (pp. 71–93). Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F. (1986). The role of verbal behavior in the emergence of equivalence classes. Paper presented to the Twelfth Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Milwaukee, WI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F., Beasty, A., & Bentall, R. P. (1983). The role of verbal behavior in human learning: Infant performance on fixed-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 39, 157 – 164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F., Harzern, P., & Bagshaw, M. (1978). Species differences in temporal control of behavior II: Human performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 29, 351–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F., Harzern, P., & Hughes, S. (1978). Determinants of operant behaviour in humans: Some differences from animals. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 30, 373–386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F., & Higson, P.J. (1981). Self-instructional training and cognitive behaviour modification: A behavioural analysis. In G. C. L. Davey (Ed.), Applications of conditioning theory (pp. 162–188). London: Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F., & Higson, P.J. (1983). Is all behaviour modification “cognitive”? In E. Karas (Ed.), Current issues in clinical psychology (pp. 207–227). London: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, C. F., & Horne, P.J. (1985). On the generality of behavioural principles: Human choice and the matching law. In C. F. Lowe, M. Richelle, D. E. Blackman, & C. M. Bradshaw (Eds.), Behaviour analysis and contemporary psychology (pp. 97–115). London: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. New York: Liveright.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1982). Language and cognition. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackintosh, N.J., & Dickinson, A. (1979). Instrumental (type 11) conditioning. In A. L. Dickinson and R. A. Boakes (Eds.), Mechanisms of learning and motivation: A memorial volume to Jerzy Konorski (pp. 143–169). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, M.J. (1977). Reflections on the cognitive-learning trend in psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 32, 5–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mann, R. A. (1972). The behaviour-therapeutic use of contingency contracting to control an adult behaviour problem: Weight control. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 5, 99–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mann, R. A. (1977). The behaviour-therapeutic use of contingency contracting to control an adult behaviour problem: Weight control. In J. P. Foreyt (Ed.), Behavioral treatments of obesity (pp. 122–143). New York: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, B. A., Catania, A. C., & Shimoff, E. (1985). Effects of uninstructed verbal behavior on nonverbal responding: Contingency descriptions versus performance descriptions. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 43, 155–164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, B. A., Shimoff, E., Catania, A. C., & Sagvolden, T. (1977). Uninstructed human responding: Sensitivity to ratio and interval contingencies. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 27, 453–467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michael, J. L. (1980). Flight from behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 3, 1–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michael, J. L. (1985). Fundamental research and behaviour modification. In C. F. Lowe, M. Richelle, D. E. Blackman, & C. M. Bradshaw (Eds.), Behaviour analysis and contemporary psychology (pp. 159–164). London: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, P. M. (1972). The use of behavioural contracting in the treatment of alcoholism: A case report. Behaviour Therapy, 3, 593–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, G. L., & Cone, J. D. (1979). Multiple-baseline analysis of a token economy for psychiatric patients. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 255–271.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poppen, R. (1982). Human fixed-interval performance with concurrently programmed schedules: A parametric analysis. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 251–266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roitblat, H. L., Bever, T. G., & Terrace, H. S. (Eds.). (1984). Animal cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidman, M., & Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional discrimination vs. matching to sample: An expansion of the testing paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 23–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sidman, M., Rauzin, R., Lazar, R., Cunningham, S., Tailby, W., & Carrigan, P. (1982). A search for symmetry in the conditional discrimination of rhesus monkeys, baboons, and children. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 5–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1945). The operational analysis of psychological terms. Psychological Review, 52, 270–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review, 57, 193–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1963). Behaviorism at fifty. Science, 134, 566–602.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1966). An operant analysis of problem solving. In B. Kleinmuntz (Ed.), Problem solving: Research, method and theory (pp. 225–257). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. London: Jonathan Cape.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1984). Coming to terms with private events. In A. C. Catania & S. Harnad (Eds.), The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 572–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sokolov, A. N. (1972). Inner speech and thought. New York: Plenum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, R. B. (1969). Operant interpersonal treatment for marital discord. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 675–682.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, R. B. (1971). Behavioural contracting within the families of delinquents. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 2, 1–11..

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suchotliff, L., Greaves, S., Stecker, H., & Berke, R. (1970). Critical variables in the token economy system. Proceedings of the78th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 5, 517–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi, M., & Iwamoto, T. (1986). Human concurrent performances: The effects of experience, instructions, and schedule-correlated stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 45, 257–267.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tharp, R. G., & Wetzel, R. T. (1969). Behaviour modification in the natural environment. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan, M. E. (1985). Repeated acquisition in the analysis of rule-governed behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 44, 175–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. New York: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).In Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. M. Cole, V.John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wearden, J. H., & Shimp, C. P. (1958). Local temporal patterning of operant behavior in humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 44, 315–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, H. (1969). Controlling human fixed-interval performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 349–373.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. (1978). Cognitive behavior therapy: Paradigm shift or passing phase? In J. Foreyt & D. Rathjen (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy: Research and application. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woods, P. A., Higson, P. J., & Tannahill, M. M. (1984). Token economy programmes with chronic psychotic patients: The importance of direct measurement and objective evaluation for long-term maintenance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22, 41–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods, P. A., & Lowe, C. F. (in press). Verbal control of inappropriate social behaviour in mentally handicapped adults. In J. Berg (Ed.), Science and service in mental retardation. London: Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zettle, R. D., & Hayes, S. C. (1982). Rule-governed behavior: A potential theoretical framework for cognitive therapy. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.), Advances in cognitive-behavioral research and therapy (Vol. 1, pp. 76–118). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University College of North Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG, Wales

    C. F. Lowe & P. J. Horne

  2. Department of Psychology, North Wales Hospital, Denbigh, Clwyd, LL16 5SS, Wales

    P. J. Higson

Authors
  1. C. F. Lowe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. P. J. Horne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. P. J. Higson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Psychiatry, London, England

    Hans J. Eysenck  & Irene Martin  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1987 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lowe, C.F., Horne, P.J., Higson, P.J. (1987). Operant Conditioning The Hiatus between Theory and Practice in Clinical Psychology. In: Eysenck, H.J., Martin, I. (eds) Theoretical Foundations of Behavior Therapy. Perspectives on Individual Differences. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0827-8_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0827-8_7

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0829-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0827-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation