Abstract
Although the bases for anatomical and physiological gender dimorphisms in man are fairly well understood (Tanner, 1970), the origins of behavioral sex differences are the subject of vigorous debate (cf. Birns, 1976; Hutt, 1972). Many of the disagreements appear to revolve about the relative contributions of organismic as opposed to environmental determinants of sex-typed activities. It seems to be all too easy to fall into the old trap of characterizing sex differences as due to either “nature” or “nurture,” rather than as the coaction of both. In these debates, there is a tendency to lose sight of the facts that the differences under consideration are matters of degree rather than kind, and that there is no a priori reason to expect that all of them result from the same causes. Analysis of the problem is further hampered by uncertainties concerning the empirical demonstrability of a number of alleged sex differences. In some cases, the dimensions of comparison, such as “dependence-independence” or “person versus object orientation” seem to be too broad and ill-defined to permit unequivocal demonstrations of gender differences (cf. Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974). In other comparisons, as with “timidity” or “aggressiveness,” it is also unclear whether the research findings reflect the methods used to obtain them rather than actual differences in behavior.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Beach, F. A. Hormonal factors controlling the differentiation, development and display of copulatory behavior in the ramstergig and related species. In E. Tobach, L. R. Aronson, and E. Shaw (Eds.), The biopsychology of development. New York: Academic Press, 1971.
Bell, R. Q., Weller, G. M., and Waldrop, M. F. Newborn and preschooler: Organization of behavior and relations between periods. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1971, 36, (1) and (2).
Bettleheim, B. The children of the dream. New York: Macmillan, 1969.
Bims, B. The emergence and socialization of sex differences in the earliest years. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1976, 22, 229–254.
Blurton-Jones, N. G., and Konner, M. J. Sex differences in behaviour of London and Bushman children. In R. P. Michael and J. H. Crook (Eds.), Comparative ecology and behaviour of primates. New York: Academic Press, 1973.
Brindley, C., Clarke, P., Hutt, C., Robinson, I., and Wethli, E. Sex differences in the activities and social interactions of nursery school children. In R. P. Michael and J. H. Crook (Eds.), Comparative Ecology and behaviour of primates. New York: Academic Press, 1973.
Caspari, E. Sexual selection and human evolution. In B. G. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man. Chicago: Aldine, 1972.
Crook, J. H. Gelada baboon herd structure and movement. A comparative report. In P. A. Jewell and C. Loizos (Eds.), play, exploration and territory in mammals. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London, Vol. 18. New York: Academic Press, 1966.
Crook, J. H. Sexual selection, dimorphism, and social organization in the primates. In B. G. Campbell, (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man. Chicago: Aldine, 1972.
D’Andrade, R. G. Sex differences and cultural institutions. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966.
Dobzhansky, T. Genetics and the origin of species, 3rd ed., revised. New York: Columbia University Press, 1951.
Dobzhansky, T. Genetics of the evolutionary process. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970.
Dornbusch, S. M. Afterword. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1966.
Draper, P. Crowding among hunter-gatherers: the !Kung bushmen. Science, 1973, 182, 301–303.
Ehrhardt, A., and Baker, S. W. Fetal androgens, human central nervous system differentiation, and behavioral sex differences. In R. C. Friedman R. M. Richart, and L. R. Vande Wiele (Eds.), Sex differences in behavior. New York: Wiley, 1974.
Estes, R. D., and Goddard, J. Prey selection and hunting behavior of the African wild dog. Journal of Wildlife Management, 1967, 31, 52–70.
Etkin, W. Types of social organization in birds and mammals. In W. Etkin (Eds.), Social behavior and organization among vertebrates.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
Fagot, B. I. Sex differences in toddlers’ behavior and parental reaction. Developmental Psychology, 1974, 10, 554–558.
Fein, G., Johnson, D., Kosson, N., Stork, L., and Wasserman, L. Sex-stereotypes and preferences in the toy-choices of 20-month-old boys and girls. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 11, 527–528.
Friedman, R. C., Richart, R. M., and Vande Wiele, R. L. (Eds.). Sex differences in behavior. New York: Wiley, 1974.
Goy, R. W., and Goldfoot, D. A. Experiential and hormonal factors influencing development of sexual behavior in the male rhesus monkey. In F. O. Schmitt, and F. G. Worden (Eds.), The neurosciences. Third study program. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1974, pp. 571–581.
Hamburg, B. A. The psychobiology of sex differences: An evolutionary perspective. In R. C. Friedman, R. M. Richart, and R. L. Vande Wiele (Eds.), Sex differences in behavior. New York: Wiley, 1974.
Harper, L. V., and Sanders, K. M. Preschool children’s use of space: Sex differences in outdoor play. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 11, 119.
Harper, L. V., and Sanders, K. M. Preschool children’s use of space: Sex differences in outdoor play. Extended report of the above reference published in R. C. Smart and M. S. Smart (Eds.), Readings in child development and relationships, 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1977.
Harper, L. V., and Huie, K. S. The development of sex differences in human behavior: Cultural impositions, or a convergence of evolved response-tendencies and cultural adaptations? In M. Bekoff and G. Burghardt (Eds.), Ontogeny of behavior. New York: Garland Publishing Co., 1978.
Hutt, C. Male and female. New York: Penguin, 1972.
Izawa, K. Unit groups of chimpanzees and their nomadism in the savannah woodland. Primates, 1970, 11, 1–46.
Jennings, S. A. Effects of sex typing in children’s stories on preference and recall. Child Development, 1975, 46, 220–223.
Kruuk, H. The spotted hyena. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.
Lee, R. B., and DeVore, I. (Eds.). Man the Hunter. Chicago: Aldine, 1968.
Lewis, M., and Weinraub, M. Sex of parent x sex of child. Socioemotional development. In R. C. Friedman, R. M. Richart, and R. L. Vande Weile (Eds.), Sex differences in behavior. New York: Wiley, 1974.
Ley, R. G., and Koepke, J. E. Sex and age differences in the departures of young children from their mothers. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Denver, Colorado, April 1975.
Loizos, C. Play behavior in the higher primates: A review. In D. Morris (Ed.), Primate ethology. Chicago: Aldine, 1967.
Maccoby, E. E., and Jacklin, C. N. The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1974.
Mech, L. D. The wolves of Isle Royale. U.S. National Parks fauna series, No. 7. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1966.
Miller, L. B., and Dyer, J. L. Four preschool programs: Their dimensions and effects. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1975, 40(5–6).
Mittwoch, U. Genetics of sex differentiation. New York: Academic Press, 1973.
Money, J., and Ehrhardt, A. A. Man and woman, boy and girl. Baltimore: Johns-Hopkins University Press, 1972.
Moore, N. V., Evertson, C. M., and Brophy, J. E. Solitary play: Some functional considerations. Developmental Psychology, 1974, 10, 830–834.
Mussen, P. H., Conger, J. J., and Kagan, J. Child development and personality, 4th ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1974.
Omark, D. R., and Edelman, M. Peer group social interactions from an evolutionary perspective. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Philadelphia, March 1973.
Pedersen, F. A., and Bell, R. Q. Sex differences in preschool children without histories of complications of pregnancy and delivery. Developmental Psychology, 1970, 3, 10–15.
Rheingold, H. L., and Cook, K. V. The contents of boys’ and girls’ rooms as an index of parents’ behavior. Child Development, 1975, 46, 459–463.
Sanders, K. M., and Harper, L. V. Free-play fantasy behavior in preschool children: Relations among gender, age, season, and location. Child Development, 1976, 47, 1182–1185.
Serbin, L. A., O’Leary, D., Kent, R. N., and Tonick, I. J. A comparison of teacher response to preacademic and problem behavior of boys and girls. Child Development, 1973, 44, 796–804.
Speth, J. D., and Davis, D. D. Seasonal variability in early hominid predation. Science, 1976, 192, 441–445.
Sternglanz, S., and Serbin, L. A. Sex role stereotyping in children’s television programs. Developmental Psychology, 1974, 10, 710–715.
Tanner, J. M. Physical growth. In P. H. Mussen, (Ed.), CarmichaeVs Manual of Child Psychology, 3rd ed., Vol. 1. New York: Wiley, 1970.
Thompson, S. K. Gender models and early sex role development. Child Development, 1975, 46, 339–347.
Thompson, W. R., and Grusec, J. Studies of early experience. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), CarmichaeVs Manual of Child Psychology, 3rd ed., Vol. 1. New York: Wiley, 1970.
Watanabe, H. Subsistence and ecology of northern food gatherers with special reference to the Ainu. In R. B. Lee and I. DeVore (Eds.), Man the hunter. Chicago: Aldine, 1968.
Waterhouse, M. J„ and Waterhouse, H. B. Primate ethology and human social behaviour. In R. P. Michael and J. H. Crook (Eds.), Comparative ecology and behaviour of primates. New York: Academic Press, 1973.
Whiting, B., and Edwards, C. P. A cross cultural analysis of sex differences in the behavior of children aged three through eleven. Journal of Social Psychology, 1973, 91, 171–188.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1978 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Harper, L.V., Sanders, K.M. (1978). Sex Differences in Preschool Children’s Social Interactions and Use of Space: An Evolutionary Perspective. In: McGill, T.E., Dewsbury, D.A., Sachs, B.D. (eds) Sex and Behavior. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0421-8_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0421-8_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0423-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0421-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive