Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution pp 183–207Cite as

Carnivore Group Living: Comparative Trends

  • Chapter

Abstract

In contrast to some other mammalian orders, members of the Carnivora do not commonly live in groups: only about 10–15% of all species aggregate at some period outside of the breeding season (Bekoff et al. 1984; Gittleman 1984). Because most carnivores reside in dense habitats and are solitary, dangerous, and nocturnal, little information existed on their social behavior until recently. Now, more comprehensive and comparative data are available to examine functional explanations of interspecific variation in grouping patterns across carnivores (for previous qualitative comparisons, see Ewer 1973; Kleiman and Eisenberg 1973; Kruuk 1975; Bertram 1979; Macdonald 1983). In this chapter I briefly review selected hypotheses for the evolution and maintenance of grouping in carnivores, focusing on those that are broadly applicable across the order and are testable from the available comparative data. I then analyze quantitative measures of interspecific variation in social behavior with respect to differences in morphology, physiology, and ecology. The analysis differs from previous cross-species comparisons of carnivore social ecology (Ewer 1973; Kleiman and Eisenberg 1973; Kruuk 1975; Bertram 1979; Macdonald and Moehlman 1982; Macdonald 1983; Bekoff et al. 1984; Kruuk and Macdonald 1985) by being more quantitative, by accounting for morphological and metabolic constraints, and by deriving general trends across the order as a whole rather than in particular taxonomic families.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Albignac, R. 1972. The carnivores of Madagascar. In: R. Battistini & G. Richard-Vindard, eds. Biogeography and Ecology of Madagascar; pp. 21–35. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albignac, R. 1973. Mammifères carnivores. La Terre et la Vie 36:1–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albignac, R. 1984. The carnivores. In: A. Jolly, P. Oberle & R. Albignac, eds. Madagascar, pp. 167–181. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, R. D. 1974. The evolution of social behavior. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 5:325–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arden-Clarke, C. H. G. 1986. Population density, home range size and spatial organization of the Cape clawless otter, Aonyx capensis, in a marine habitat. J. Zool. 209:201–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashwood, T. L., and Gittleman, J. L. 1989. Behavioral and ecological factors influencing population density in cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus): A critical review. In: H. G. Genoways, ed. Current Mammalogy, vol. 3. New York: Plenum. In press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff, M., ed. 1978. Coyotes: Their Biology, Behavior and Management New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff, M., Daniels, T. J., and Gittleman, J. L. 1984. Life history patterns and the comparative social ecology of carnivores. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 15:191–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff, M., Diamond, J., and Mitton, J. B. 1981. Life history patterns and sociality in canids: Body size, reproduction and behavior. Oecologia 50:386–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff, M., and Wells, M. C. 1980. The social ecology of coyotes. Sci. Amer. 242:130–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff, M., and Wells, M. C. 1982. The behavioral ecology of coyotes: Social organization, rearing patterns, space use, and resource defense. Z. Tierpsychol. 60:281–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff, M., and Wells, M. C. 1986. Social ecology and behavior of coyotes. Adv. Study Behav. 16:251–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertram, B. C. R. 1975. The social systems of lions. Sci. Amer. 177:463–482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertram, B. C. R. 1976. Kin selection in lions and in evolution. In: P. P. G. Bateson & R. A. Hinde, eds. Growing Points in Ethology, pp. 281–301. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertram, B. C. R. 1978. Living in groups: Predators and prey. In: J. R. Krebs & N. B. Davies, eds. Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, pp. 281–301. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertram, B. C. R. 1979. Serengeti predators and their social systems. In: A. R. E. Sinclair & M. Norton-Griffiths, eds. Serengeti: Dynamics of an Ecosystem, pp. 159–179. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, W. D. 1981. Variation in coyote social organization: The influence of prey size. Canadian J. Zool. 59:539–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradbury, J. W., and Vehrencamp, S. L. 1976. Social organization and foraging in Emballonurid bats. I. field studies. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2:1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bygott, J. D., Bertram, B. C. R., and Hanby, J. P. 1979. Male lions in large coalitions gain reproductive advantages. Nature 282:838–840.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caraco, T., and Wolf, L. L. 1975. Ecological determinants of group sizes of foraging lions. Amer. Nat. 109:343–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caro, T. M., and Collins, D. A. 1986. Male cheetahs of the Serengeti. Natl. Geogr. Rep. 2:75–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caro, T. M., and Collins, D. A. 1987 Ecological characteristics of territories of male cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). J. Zool. 211:89–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, C. W., and Mangel, M. 1986. The evolutionary advantages of group foraging. Theor. Pop. Biology. 30:45–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P. H. 1977. Primate ecology and social organisation. J. Zool. 183:1–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P. H. 1978. Mammals, resources and reproductive strategies. Nature 273:191–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P. H. 1983. The functional significance of variation in body size among mammals. In: J. F. Eisenberg and D. G. Kleiman, eds. Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior, pp. 632–663. Special Publication no. 7. Lawrence, Kans.: American Society of Mammalogists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P. H. 1984. Comparative approaches to investigating adaptation. In: J. R. Krebs & N. B. Davies, eds. Behavioral Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (2nd ed.), pp. 7–29. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corbet, G. B., and Hill, J. E. 1980. A World List of Mammalian Species. London: British Museum (Natural History).

    Google Scholar 

  • Crook, J. H. 1970. The socio-ecology of primates. In: J. H. Crook, ed. Social Behavior in Birds and Mammals, pp. 103–159. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidar, E. R. C. 1975. Ecology and behavior of the dhole or Indian wild dog (Cuon alpinus). In: M. W. Fox, ed. The Wild Canids, pp. 109–119. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, J. F. 1981. The Mammalian Radiations. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, J. F., and Leyhausen. P. 1972. The phylogenesis of predatory behaviour. Z. Tierpsychol. 30:59–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eloff, F. C. 1973. Ecology and behavior of the Kalahari lion. In: R. Eaton, ed. The World’s Cats 1: pp. 90–126. Winston, Ore.: World Wildlife Safari.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, R. D. 1974. Social organization of the African Bovidae. In: V. Geist & V. Walther, eds. The Behavior of Ungulates and Its Relation to Management, pp. 166–255. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, R.D., and J. Goddard. 1967. Prey selection and hunting behavior of the African wild dog. J. Wild. Mgmt. 31:52–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewer, R. F. 1973. The Carnivores. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felsenstein, J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. Amer. Nat. 125:1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frame, L. H., Malcolm, J. R., Frame, G. W., and van Lawick, H., 1979. Social organization of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) on the Serengeti Plains. Z. Tierpsychol. 50:225–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, L. G. 1986a. Social organization of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta). I. demography. Anim. Behav. 34:1500–1509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, L. G. 1986b. Social organization of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta). II. dominance. Anim. Behav. 34:1510–1527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1984. The Behavioural Ecology of Carnivores. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Sussex, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1985a. Carnivore body size: Ecological and taxonomic correlates. Oecologia 67:540–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1985b. Functions of communal care in mammals. In: P. J. Greenwood, P. H. Harvey & M. Slatkin, eds. Evolution: Essays in Honour of John Maynard Smith, pp. 187–205. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1986a. Carnivore brain size, behavioral ecology, and phylogeny. J. Mamm. 67:23–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1986b. Carnivore life history patterns: Allometric, phylogenetic, and ecological associations. Amer. Nat. 127:744–771.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1988. The comparative approach in ethology: Aims and limitations. In: P. P. G. Bateson and P. H. Klopfer, eds. Perspectives in Ethology, 8:55–83. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L., and Harvey, P. H. 1982. Carnivore home-range size, metabolic needs, and ecology. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 10:57–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorman, M. L. 1979. Dispersion and foraging of the small Indian mongoose, Herpestes auropunctatus (Carnivora: Viverridae) relative to the evolution of social viverrids. J. Zool. 187:65–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guggisburg, C. A. W. 1975. Wild Cats of the World. New York: Taplinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. D. 1971. Geometry for the selfish herd. J. Theor. Biol. 31:295–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, P. H., and Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1985. Life history variation in primates. Evolution 39:559–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, P. H., and Greene, P. J. 1981. Group composition: An evolutionary perspective. In: H. Kellerman, ed. Group Cohesion: Theoretical and Clinical Perspectives, pp. 148–169. New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, P. H., and Mace, G. M. 1982. Comparisons between taxa and adaptive trends: Problems of methodology. In: King’s College Sociobiology Group, eds. Current Problems in Sociobiology, pp. 343–361. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrero, S. 1978. A comparison of some features of the evolution, ecology, and behavior of black and grizzly/brown bears. Carnivore 1:7–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoogland, J. L. 1979. Aggression, ectoparasitism, and other costs of prairie dog (Sciuridae: Cenomys spp.) coloniality. Behaviour 69:1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoogland, J. L. 1981. The evolution of coloniality in white-tailed and black-tailed prairie dogs (Sciuridae: Cenomys leucrus and C. ludocianus). Ecology 62:252–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarman, P. J. 1974. The social organization of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour 48:215–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarman, P. J., and Jarman, M. V. 1979. The dynamics of ungulate social organization. In: A. R. E. Sinclair and M. Norton-Griffiths, eds. Serengeti: Dynamics of an Ecosystem, pp. 185–220. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnsingh, A. J. T. 1982. Reproductive and social behaviour of the dhole, Cuon alpinus (Canidae). J. Zool. 198:443–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, J. H. 1962. Ecology and social behavior of the coati, Nasua narica, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Univ. California Publications in Zoology 60:95–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, J. H. 1974. The ecology and evolution of social organization in the kangaroo family (Macopodidae). Am. Zool. 14:51–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingdon, J. 1977. East African Mammals. 3A. Carnivores. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, D. G., and Brady, C. 1978. Coyote behavior in the context of recent canid research: Problems and perspectives. In: M. Bekoff, ed. Coyotes, pp. 163–186. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, D. G., and Eisenberg, J. F. 1973. Comparisons of canid and felid social systems from an evolutionary perspective. Anim. Behav. 21:637–659.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, J. R., MacRoberts, M. H., and Cullen, J. M. 1972. Flocking and feeding in the great tit Parus major—an experimental study. Ibis 114:507–530.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. 1972. The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behavior. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. 1975. Functional aspects of social hunting in carnivores. In: G. Baerands, C. Beer, and A. Manning, eds. Function and Evolution in Behaviour, pp. 119–141. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. 1978. Spatial organization and territorial behaviour of the European badger, Meles meles. J. Zool. 184:1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H., and Macdonald, D. 1985. Group territories of carnivores: Empires and enclaves. In: R. M. Sibly and R. H. Smith, eds. Behavioural Ecology, pp. 521–526. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H., and Parish, T. 1982. Factors affecting population density, group size and territory size of the European badger. J. Zool. 196:31–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamprecht, J. 1978. On diet, foraging behaviour and interspecific food competition of jackals in the Serengeti National Park. Z. Säugetierk. 43:210–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamprecht, J. 1981. The function of social hunting in larger terrestrial carnivores. Mamm. Rev. 11:169–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, A. T., and Cockburn, A. 1985. Evolutionary Ecology of Marsupials. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindström, E. 1986. Territory inheritance and the evolution of group-living in carnivores. Anim. Behav. 34:1825–1835.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, C. D. 1980. Ecology of the suricate, Suricata suricatta and yellow mongoose, Cynictis penicillata with special reference to reproduction. Memoirs Van Die Nasionale Museum. 14:1–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. 1976. Food caching by red foxes and some other carnivores. Z. Tierpsychol. 42:170–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. 1978. Observations on the ecology and behaviour of the striped hyaena, Hyaena hyaena, in Israel. Israel J. Zool. 27:189–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. 1979 The flexible social system of the golden jackal, Canis aureus. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 5:17–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. 1983. The ecology of carnivore social behaviour. Nature 301:379–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W., and Moehlman, P. D. 1982. Cooperation, altruism, and restraint in the reproduction of carnivores. Persp. Ethol. 5:433–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mace, G. M., Harvey, P. H., and Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1983. Vertebrate home range size and metabolic requirements. In: I. Swingland & P. J. Greenwood, eds. The Ecology of Animal Movement, pp. 32–53. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNab, B. K. 1980. Food habits, energetics, and the population biology of mammals. Amer. Nat. 116:106–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malcolm, J. 1979. Social organization and the communal rearing of pups in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). Ph.D. dissert., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malcolm, J., and van Lawick, H. 1975. Notes on wild dogs hunting zebras. Mammalia 39:231–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. D. 1981. Field studies of primate behaviour. Symp. Zool. Soc. London. 46:287–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mech, L. D. 1966. The Wolves of Isle Royale. Fauna Series 7. Washington, D. C: Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mech, L. D. 1970. The Wolf: the Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species. New York: Natural History Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menzel, E. W. 1971. Communication about the environment in a group of young chimpanzees. Folia Primatol. 15:220–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messier, F. 1985a. Social organization, spatial distribution, and population density of wolves in relation to moose density. Canadian J. Zool. 63:1068–1077.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messier, F. 1985b. Solitary living and extraterritorial movements of wolves in relation to social status and prey abundance. Canadian J. Zool. 63:239–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, M. G. L. 1978. The comparative socio-ecology of the Hyaenidae. Carnivore 1:1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, M. G. L. 1985. Related spotted hyaenas forage together but do not cooperate in rearing young. Nature 316:61–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moehlman, P. D. 1983. Socioecology of silverbacked and golden jackals (Canis mesomelas and Canis aureus). In: J. F. Eisenberg & D. G. Kleiman, eds. Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior, pp. 423–453. Special Publication no. 7. Lawrence, Kans., American Society of Mammalogists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moehlman, P. D. 1986. Ecology of cooperation in canids. In: D. I. Rubenstein & R. W. Wrangham, eds. Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution, pp. 64–86. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nel, J. A. J., Mills, M. G. L., Van Aarde, R. J. 1984. Fluctuating group size in bat-eared foxes (Otocyon megalotis) in the south-western Kalahari. J. Zool. 203:294–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nudds, T. D. 1978. Convergence of group size strategies by mammalian social carnivores. Amer. Nat. 112:957–960.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owens, D. D., and Owens, M. J. 1984. Helping behaviour in brown hyaenas. Nature 308:843–845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Packer, C. 1986. The ecology of sociality in felids. In: D. I. Rubenstein & R. W. Wrangham, eds. Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution, pp. 429–451. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Packer, C, and Pusey, A. E. 1982. Cooperation and competition within coalitions of male lions: Kin selection or game theory? Nature 296:740–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • Packer, C, and Pusey, A. E. 1983a. Adaptations of female lions to infanticide by incoming males. Amer. Nat. 121:716–728.

    Google Scholar 

  • Packer, C., and Pusey, A. E. 1983b. Male takeovers and female reproductive parameters: A simulation of oestrous synchrony in lions (Panthera leo). Anim. Behav. 31:334–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pulliam, H. R., and Caraco, T. 1984. Living in groups: Is there an optimal group size? In: J. R. Krebs & N. B. Davies, eds. Behavioural Ecology (2nd ed.), pp. 122–147. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasa, O. A. E. 1977. The ethology and sociology of the dwarf mongoose, Helogale undulata rufula. Z. Tierpsychol. 43:337–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasa, O. A. E. 1986. Coordinated vigilance in dwarf mongoose family groups: The “watchman’s song” hypothesis and the costs of guarding. Z. Tierpsychol. 71:340–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. P. 1974. Banded mongoose males guard young. Nature 248:176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. P. 1975. Population dynamics and food habits of the banded mongoose. East African Wildl. J. 13:89–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. P. 1978. Dwarf mongoose helpers at the den. Z. Tierpsychol. 48:277–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. P. 1980. Mating relationships and breeding suppression in the dwarf mongoose. Anim. Behav. 28:143–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. P. 1983. The social system of the dwarf mongoose. In: J. F. Eisenberg & D. G. Kleiman, eds. Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior, pp. 454–488. Special Publication no. 7. Lawrence, Kans.: American Society of Mammalogists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. P. 1986. Ecology and social evolution in the mongooses. In: D. I. Rubenstein & R. W. Wrangham, eds. Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution, pp. 131–152. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. K. 1983. Altruism in coati bands: Nepotism or reciprocity? In: S. K. Wasser, ed. Social Behavior of Female Vertebrates, pp. 263–290. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaller, G. B. 1972. The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator-Prey Relations. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaller, G. B., Jinchu, H., Wenshi, P., and Jing, Z. 1985. The Giant Pandas of Wolong. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunquist, M. E. 1981. The social organization of tigers (Panthera tigris) in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, R. 1982. Vigilance behaviour in grazing African ungulates. Behaviour 79:81–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Orsdol, K. G. 1984. Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. African J. Ecol. 22:79–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Orsdol, K. G., Hanby, J. P. and Bygott, J. D. 1985. Ecological correlates of lion social organization (Panthera leo). J. Zool. 206:97–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Valkenburgh, B. 1985. Locomotor diversity within past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 11:406–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Schantz, T. 1984. Carnivore social behaviour—does it need patches? Nature 307:389–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, P., and Zahavi, A. 1973. The importance of certain assemblages of birds as “information-centres” for food finding. Ibis 115:517–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waser, P. M. 1981. Sociality or tarritorial defense? The influence of resource renewal. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 8:231–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waser, P. M., and Waser, M. S. 1985. Ichneumia albicauda and the evolution of viverrid gregariousness. Z. Tierpsychol. 68:137–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells, M. C., and Bekoff, M. 1982. Predation by wild coyotes: Behavioral and ecological analyses. J. Mamm. 63:118–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. O. 1975. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrangham, R. W. 1975. The behavioural ecology of chimpanzees in Gombe National Park. PhD. thesis, Cambridge Univ., Cambridge, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrangham, R. W. 1977. Feeding behaviour of chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. In: T. H. Clutton-Brock, ed. Primate Ecology, pp. 504–538. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyman, J. 1967. The jackals of the Serengeti. Animals 10:79–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimen, E. (ed.) 1980. The Red Fox. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. John L. Gittleman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoology and Graduate Programs in Ecology and Ethology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA

    John L. Gittleman

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1989 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gittleman, J.L. (1989). Carnivore Group Living: Comparative Trends. In: Gittleman, J.L. (eds) Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4716-4_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4716-4_8

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-412-34360-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-4716-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation