Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a leading public health concern in the United States and around the world. According to the Centers for Disease Control, more than 15 million people in the United States, or 5.9% of the population, have diabetes and 798,000 new cases are diagnosed each year. Diabetes affects people of all ages but is most common in the elderly. While fewer than 1% of people under the age of 20 have diabetes, more than 18% of Americans age 65 and older have the disease. Diabetes affects men and women equally, but is more common in certain minority populations than it is in non-Hispanic whites. The risk of developing diabetes is approximately two times higher in Hispanics and non-Hispanic blacks than it is in non-Hispanic whites. In Native Americans and Alaskan Natives the risk is nearly three times than of non-Hispanic whites.1
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Fact Sheet: National Estimates and General Information on Diabetes in the United States. Revised ed. Atlanta: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1998.
Rubin RI, Altman WM, Mendelson DN. Health care expenditures for people with diabetes mellitus, 1992. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78: 809A - 809F.
Report of the Expert Committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2001; 24: S5 - S20.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes Surveillance. Atlanta: Department of Health and Human Services; 1993: 87–93.
Harris MI. Summary. In: National Diabetes Data Group, ed. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 1995: 1–14.
Songer TJ, LaPorte RE, Dorman JS. The individual costs of insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) expected through age 40. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1988; 1–5 (suppl): S354.
LaPorte RE, Matsushima M, Chang YF. Prevalence and incidence of insulin-dependent diabetes. In: National Diabetes Data Group, ed. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 1995: 37–46.
American Diabetes Association. Screening for diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001; 24 (suppl 1): S21.
Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, et al. Diabetes trends in the U.S.: 1990–1998. Diabetes Care 2000; 23: 1278–1283.
Bruno G, Merletti F, Biggeri A, et al. Increasing trend of type I diabetes in children and young adults in the province of Turin (Italy). Analysis of age, period and birth cohort effects from 1984 to 1996. Diabetologia 2001; 44: 22–25.
Onkamo P, Vaananen S, Karvonen M, Tuomilehto J. Worldwide increase in incidence of type I diabetes-the analysis of the data on published incidence trends. Diabetologia 1999; 42: 1395–1403.
Ehtisham S, Barrett TG, Shaw NJ. Type 2 diabetes mellitus in UK children-an emerging problem. Diabetic Med 2000; 17: 867–871.
Fagot-Campagna A, Pettitt DJ, Engelgau MM, et al. Type 2 diabetes among North American children and adolescents: An epidemiologic review and a public health perspective. J Pediatr 2000; 136: 664–672.
American Diabetes Association. Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. Diabetes Care 2000; 23: 381–389.
Mokdad AH, Serdula MK, Dietz WH, Bowman BA, Marks JS, Koplan JP. The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991–1998. JAMA 1999; 282: 1519–1522.
Kenny SJ, Aubert RE, Geiss LS. Prevalence and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes. In: National Diabetes Data Group, ed. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 1995: 47–68.
Ford ES, Williamson DF, Liu S. Weight change and diabetes incidence: Findings from a national cohort of US adults. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 146: 214–222.
Grandinetti A, Chang HK, Chen R, Fujimoto WY, Rodriguez BL, Curb JD. Prevalence of overweight and central adiposity is associated with percentage of indigenous ancestry among native Hawaiians Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23: 733–737.
Boyko EJ, Leonetti DL, Bergstrom RW, Newell-Morris L, Fujimoto WY. Visceral adiposity, fasting plasma insulin, and lipid and lipoprotein levels in Japanese Americans. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996; 20: 801–808.
Ravussin E, Valencia ME, Esparza J, Bennett PH, Schulz LO. Effects of a traditional lifestyle on obesity in Pima Indians Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 1067–1074.
Hawkes CH. Twin studies in diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Med 1997; 14: 347–352.
Vionnet N, Stoffel M, Takeda J, et al. Nonsense mutation in the glucokinase gene causes early-onset non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Nature 1992; 356: 721–722.
Yamagata K, Oda N, Kaisaki PJ, et al. Mutations in the hepatocyte nuclear factor-lalpha gene in maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY3). Nature 1996; 384: 455–458.
Kjos SL, Buchanan TA. Gestational diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1749–1756.
Metzger BE, Cho NH, Roston SM, Radvany R. Prepregnancy weight and antepartum insulin secretion predict glucose tolerance five years after gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1993; 16: 1598–1605.
Henry OA, Beischer NA. Long-term implications of gestational diabetes for the mother. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1991; 5: 461–483.
Coustan DR, Carpenter MW, O’Sullivan PS, Carr SR. Gestational diabetes: Predictors of subsequent disordered glucose metabolism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168: 1139–1144.
Damm P, Kuhl C, Bertelsen A, Molsted-Pedersen L. Predictive factors for the development of diabetes in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 167: 607–616.
Ueki M, Yasunami Y, Ina K, et al. Diabetogenic effects of FK506 on renal subcapsular islet isografts in rat. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1993; 20: 11–19.
Ost L. Effects of cyclosporin on prednisolone metabolism. Lancet 1984; 1: 451.
Hahn HJ, Laube F, Lucke S, Kloting I, Kohnert KD, Warzock R. Toxic effects of cyclosporine on the endocrine pancreas of Wistar rats. Transplantation 1986; 41: 44–47.
Gillison SL, Bartlett ST, Curry DL. Inhibition by cyclosporine of insulin secretion-a beta cell-specific alteration of islet tissue function. Transplantation 1991; 52: 890–895.
Ericzon BG, Wijnen RM, Kubota K, Kootstra G, Groth CG. FK506-induced impairment of glucose metabolism in the primate-studies in pancreatic transplant recipients and in non-transplanted animals. Transplantation 1992; 54: 615–620.
Bengtsson C, Blohme G, Lapidus L, et al. Do antihypertensive drugs precipitate diabetes? Br Med J Clin Res 1984; 289: 1495 1497.
Dornhorst A, Powell SH, Pensky J. Aggravation by propranolol of hyperglycaemic effect of hydrochlorothiazide in type II diabetics without alteration of insulin secretion. Lancet 1985; 1: 123–126.
Swisloski ALM, Hoffman BB, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia in patients with hypertension. Am J Hyperten 1985; 2: 419–423.
Micossi P, Pollavini G, Raggi U, Librenti MC, Garimberti B, Beggi P. Effects of metoprolol and propranolol on glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in diabetes mellitus. Horm Metab Res 1984; 16: 59–63.
Garg A, Grundy SM. Nicotinic acid as therapy for dyslipidemia in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1990; 264: 723–726.
Koya D, King GL. Protein kinase C activation and the development of diabetic complications. Diabetes 1998; 47: 859–866.
Nathan DM. Long-term complications of diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1676–1685.
Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol 1984; 102: 520–526.
Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol 1984; 102: 527–532.
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977–986.
Klein R, Klein BEK. Vision disorders in diabetes. In: Harris MI, ed. Diabetes in America. Washington, DC: NIH; 1995: 293–337.
Chiang YP, Bassi LJ, Javitt JC. Federal budgetary costs of blindness. Milbank Q 1992; 70: 319–340.
Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE. Visual impairment in diabetes. Ophthalmology 1984; 91: 1–9.
Department of Health and Human Services. Health Care Financing Research Report. End Stage Renal Disease, 1991. Reference 270. Baltimore, MD: HCFA; 1993: 384.
Krolewski AS, Warram JH, Christlieb AR, Busick EJ, Kahn CR. The changing natural history of nephropathy in type I diabetes. Am J Med 1985; 78: 785–794.
Andersen AR, Christiansen JS, Andersen JK, Kreiner S, Deckert T. Diabetic nephropathy in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes: An epidemiological study. Diabetologia 1983; 25: 496–501.
Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE. Prevalence of microalbuminuria in older-onset diabetes. Diabetes Care 1993; 16: 1325–1330.
Gall MA, Rossing P, Skott P, et al. Prevalence of micro-and macroalbuminuria, arterial hypertension, retinopathy and large vessel disease in European type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Diabetologia 1991; 34: 655–661.
Seaquist ER, Goetz FC, Rich S, Barbosa J. Familial clustering of diabetic kidney disease. Evidence for genetic susceptibility to diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 1161–1165.
Earle K, Walker J, Hill C, Viberti G. Familial clustering of cardiovascular disease in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 673–677.
Yip J, Mattock M, Sethi M, Morocutti A, Viberti G. Insulin resistance in family members of insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Lancet 1993; 341: 369–370.
Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, Rohde RD. The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1456–1462.
Ravid M, Brosh D, Levi Z, Bar-Dayan Y, Ravid D, Rachmani R. Use of enalapril to attenuate decline in renal function in normotensive, normoalbuminuric patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 982–988.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998; 352: 837–853.
Ross MA. Neuropathies associated with diabetes. Med Clin North Am 1993; 77: 111–124.
Dyck PJ, Kratz KM, Karnes JL, et al. The prevalence by staged severity of various types of diabetic neuropathy, retinopathy, and nephropathy in a population-based cohort: The Rochester Diabetic Neuropathy Study. Neurology 1993; 43: 817–824.
Palumbo PJ, Melton LJ. Peripheral vascular disease and diabetes. In: Harris MI, Hamman RF, eds. Diabetes in America. Washington, DC: NIH; 1985:XV1–21.
Huse DM, Oster G, Killen AR, Lacey MJ, Colditz GA. The economic costs of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1989; 262: 2708–2713.
Reiber GE, Boyko EJ, Smith DG. Lower extremity foot ulcers and amputations in diabetes. In: Harris MI, ed. Diabetes in America. Washington, DC: NIH, 1995: 409–427.
Nelson RG, Ghodes DM, Everhart JE, et al. Lower-extremity amputations in NIDDM. 12-yr follow-up study in Pima Indians. Diabetes Care 1988; 11: 8–16.
Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, Pyorala K, Laakso M. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 229–234.
Wingard DL, Barrett-Connor E. Heart disease and diabetes. In: National Diabetes Data Group, ed. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 1995: 429–448.
Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-yr cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care 1993;16:43’1 ‘114.
Morrish NJ, Stevens LK, Fuller JH, Keen H, Jarrett RJ. Incidence of macrovascular disease in diabetes mellitus: The London cohort of the WHO Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetics. Diabetologia 1991; 34: 584–589.
ETDRS Investigators. Aspirin effects on mortality and morbidity in patients with diabetes mellitus. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study report 14. JAMA 1992; 268: 1292–1300.
Damsgaard EM, Froland A, Jorgensen OD, Mogensen CE. Eight to nine year mortality in known non-insulin dependent diabetics and controls. Kidney Int 1992; 41: 731–735.
Neil A, Hawkins M, Potok M, Thorogood M, Cohen D, Mann J. A prospective population-based study of microalbuminuria as a predictor of mortality in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1993; 16: 996–1003.
Wingard DL, Cohn BA. Coronary Heart Disease Among Women in Alameda County, 1965–1973. Chapter 11 in Coronary Heart Disease in Women: Proceedings of an NIH Workshop. New York: Haymarket Doyma Inc; 1987.
Seaman T, DeLeon CM, Berkman L, Ostfield A. Risk factors for coronary heart disease among older men and women: A prospective study of community-dwelling elderly. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 138: 1037–1049.
Pan WH, Cedres LB, Liu K, et al. Relationship of clinical diabetes and asymptomatic hyperglycemia to risk of coronary heart disease mortality in men and women. Am J Epidemiol 1986; 123: 504–516.
Barrett-Connor EL, Cohn BA, Wingard DL, Edelstein SL. Why is diabetes mellitus a stronger risk factor for fatal ischemic heart disease in women than in men? The Rancho Bernardo Study. JAMA 1991; 265: 627–631.
Granger CB, Califf RM, Young S, et al. Outcome of patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction treated with thrombolytic agents. The Thrombolysis and Angioplasty in Myocardial Infarction (TAMI) Study Group. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 21: 920–925.
Singer DE, Moulton AW, Nathan DM. Diabetic myocardial infarction. Interaction of diabetes with other preinfarction risk factors. Diabetes 1989; 38: 350–357.
Smith JW, Marcus FI, Serokman R Prognosis of patients with diabetes mellitus after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1984; 54: 718–721.
Cooper RS, Pacold IV, Ford ES. Age-related differences in case-fatality rates among diabetic patients with myocardial infarction. Findings from National Hospital Discharge Survey, 1979–1987. Diabetes Care 1991; 14: 903–908.
Donahue RP, Goldberg RJ, Chen Z, Gore JM, Alpert JS. The influence of sex and diabetes mellitus on survival following acute myocardial infarction: A community-wide perspective. J Clin Epidemiol 1993; 46: 245–252.
Abraira C, Colwell JA, Nuttall FQ, et al. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study on glycemic control and complications in type II diabetes (VA CSDM). Results of the feasibility trial.Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study in Type II Diabetes. Diabetes Care 1995; 18: 1113–1123.
Pedrinelli R, Giampietro O, Carmassi F, et al. Microalbuminuria and endothelial dysfunction in essential hypertension. Lancet 1994; 344: 14–18.
Nilsson SV, Nilsson JE, Frostberg N, Emilsson T. The Kristianstad survey. II. Studies in a representative adult diabetic population with special reference to comparison with an adequate control group. Acta Med Scand 1967; 469 (suppl): 1–42.
Janka HU, Standl E, Mehnert H. Peripheral vascular disease in diabetes mellitus and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors: Screening with the doppler ultrasonic technique. Diabetes Care 1980; 3: 207–213.
Bendick PJ, Glover JL, Kuebler TW, Dilley RS. Progression of atherosclerosis in diabetics. Surgery 1983; 93: 834–838.
Melton LJ III, Macken KM, Palumbo PJ, Elveback LR. Incidence and prevalence of clinical peripheral vascular disease in a population-based cohort of diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1980; 3: 650–654.
Beach KW, Strandness DE Jr. Arteriosclerosis obliterans and associated risk factors in insulin-dependent and non–insulindependent diabetes. Diabetes 1980; 29: 882–888.
Osmundson PJ, O’Fallon WM, Zimmerman BR, Kazmier FJ, Langworthy AL, Palumbo PJ. Course of peripheral occlusive arterial disease in diabetes. Vascular laboratory assessment. Diabetes Care 1990; 13: 143–152.
Aronson SM. Intracranial vascular lesions in patients with diabetes mellitus. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1973; 32: 183–196.
Alex M, Baron EK, Goldenberg S, Bumenthal HT. An autopsy of cerebrovascular accidents in diabetes mellitus. Circulation 1962; 25: 663–673.
Feinleib M, Ingster L, Rosenberg H, Maurer J, Singh G, Kochanek K. Time trends, cohort effects, and geographic patterns in stroke mortality—United States. Ann Epidemiol 1993; 3: 458–465.
Kittner SJ, White LR, Losonczy KG, Wolf PA, Hebel JR. Black–white differences in stroke incidence in a national sample. The contribution of hypertension and diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1990; 264: 1267–1270.
Manson JE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of maturity-onset diabetes mellitus and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in women. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 1141–1147.
American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Hypertension: Specific goals of treatment. Diabetes Care 1 2001; 24 (suppl 1): 540.
Wolf PA, D’Agostino RB, Belanger AJ, Kannel WB. Probability of stroke: A risk profile from the Framingham Study. Stroke 1991; 22: 312–318.
Abbott RD, Brand FN, Kannel WB. Epidemiology of some peripheral arterial findings in diabetic men and women: Experiences from the Framingham Study. Am J Med 1990; 88: 376–381.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sibley, S.D., Seaquist, E.R. (2004). Diabetes Mellitus: Classification and Epidemiology. In: Gruessner, R.W.G., Sutherland, D.E.R. (eds) Transplantation of the Pancreas. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4371-5_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4371-5_1
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-1830-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-4371-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive