Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
SpringerLink
Log in

Body Image Concerns Throughout the Lifespan

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Active Female

Abstract

Due to the rising rates of eating disorders and obesity, increasingly more attention is being paid to body image and body image difficulties. Body dissatisfaction, which is ubiquitous among girls and women, can be defined by the difference between one’s perceived body size and ideal body, particularly with regard to the desire to be thin. Body dissatisfaction has become so commonplace that it has been described as “normative discontent.” It is also considered one of the most robust risk and maintenance factors for clinical eating disorders. A wide range of risk factors contribute to the development of body dissatisfaction, including biological and physical factors, sociocultural influences, and individual characteristics. In addition, females who place a strong emphasis on thinness and physical appearance and routinely engage in body comparison are especially vulnerable to experiencing body dissatisfaction. Body image problems and disordered eating behaviors know no boundaries; they impact females across age groups, ethnicities, cultures, and socioeconomic levels. Therefore, it is essential for health professionals to understand the development of body image difficulties and be knowledgeable about body image assessment techniques and effective prevention and intervention programs. Armed with this insight, health professionals will be in position to foster healthy body image and enhance quality of life among females across the lifespan.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Cash TF. Body image: past, present, and future. Body Image. 2004;1(1):1–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Smolak L, Thompson JK. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in children and adolescents: an introduction to the second edition. In: Smolak L, Thompson JK, editors. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: assessment, prevention, and treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009. p. 3–14.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  3. Thompson J, Heinberg L, Altabe M, Tantleff-Dunn S. Exacting beauty: theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1999.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  4. Bruchon-Schweitzer M. Psicología del cuerpo. Barcelona: Herder; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Erickson SJ, Gerstle M. Investigation of ethnic differences in body image between Hispanic/biethnic Hispanic and non-Hispanic White preadolescent girls. Body Image. 2007;4:69–78. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.11.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Slevec JH, Tiggemann M. Predictors of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in middle-aged women. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011;31:515–24. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Bearman SK, Presnell K, Martinez E, Stice E. The skinny on body dissatisfaction: a longitudinal study of adolescent girls and boys. J Youth Adolesc. 2006;35(2):217–29. doi:10.1007/sl10964-005-9010-9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Wade T, George WM, Atkinson M. A randomized controlled trial of brief interventions for body dissatisfaction. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009;77:845–54. doi:10.1037/a0016879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Ferrer-García M, Gutiérrez-Maldonado J. The use of virtual reality in the study, assessment, and treatment of body image and eating disorders and nonclinical samples: a review of the literature. Body Image. 2012;1:1–11. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Arlington, VA: Author; 2000. text revision.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Rodin J, Silberstein L, Streigel-Moore R. Women and weight: a normative discontent. In: Sondregger TB, editor. Psychol and gender: nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press; 1985. p. 206–37.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Stice E, Schupak-Neuberg E, Shaw HE, Stein R. Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull. 2002;128:825–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Johnson F, Wardle J. Dietary restraint, body dissatisfaction, and psychological distress: a prospective analysis. J Abnorm Psychol. 2005;114:119–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Rodgers RF, Salés P, Chabrol H. Psychological functioning, media pressure and body dissatisfaction among college women. Eur Rev Appl Psychol. 2010;60(2):89–95. doi:10.1016/j.erap.2009.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Stice E, Hayward C, Cameron RP, et al. Body-image and eating disturbances predict onset of depression among female adolescents: a longitudinal study. J Abnorm Psychol. 2000;3:438–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Wertheim EH, Paxton SJ, Blaney S. Body image in girls. In: Smolak L, Thompson JK, editors. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: assessment, prevention, and treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009. p. 47–76.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  17. Phillips KA, Menard W, Fay C. Gender similarities and differences in 200 individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2006;47:77–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Murray CD, Macdonald S, Fox J. Body dissatisfaction, eating disorders and suicide ideation in an Internet sample of self-harmers reporting and not reporting childhood sexual abuse. Psychol Health Med. 2008;13(1):29–42. doi:10.1080/135485007012 35757.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Izgic F, Akyuz G, Dogan O, Kugu N. Social phobia among university students and its relation to self-esteem and body image. Can J Psychiatry. 2004;49(9):630–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Field AE, Kitos N. Eating and weight concerns in eating disorders. In: Agras WS, editor. The oxford handbook of eating disorders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2010. p. 206–22.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Abraczinskas M, FisakJr B, Barnes RD. The relation between parental influence, body image, and eating behaviors in a nonclinical female sample. Body Image. 2012;9:93–100. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim. 2011.10.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Chen H, Jackson T. Gender and age group differences in mass media and interpersonal influences on body dissatisfaction among Chinese adolescents. Sex Roles. 2012;66:3–20. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0056-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Clark L, Tiggemann M. Appearance culture in nine- to 12-year-old girls: media and peer influences on body dissatisfaction. Soc Dev. 2006;15:628–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Jones DC, Vigfusdottir TH, Lee Y. Body image and the appearance culture among adolescent girls and boys: an examination of friend conversations, peer criticism, appearance magazines, and the internalization of appearance ideals. J Adol Res. 2004;19:323–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. van den Berg P, Thompson JK, Obremski-Brandon K, Coovert M. The tripartite influence model of body image and eating disturbance—a covariance structure modelling investigation testing the mediational role of appearance comparison. J Psychosom Res. 2002;53:1007–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Ayala GX, Mickens L, Galindo P, Elder JP. Acculturation and body image perception among Latino youth. Ethn Health. 2007;12:21–41. doi:10.1080/13557850600824294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Cheney AM. “Most girls want to be skinny”: body (dis)satisfaction among ethnically diverse women. Qual Health Res. 2011;21(10):1347–59. doi:10.1177/1049732310392592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Carey RN, Donaghue N, Broderick P. ‘What you look like is such a big factor’: girls’ own reflections about the appearance culture in an all-girls’ school. Feminism Psychol. 2011;21(3):299–316. doi:10.1177/0959353510369893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Tiggemann H, Dohnt M. The contribution of peer and media influences to the development of body dissatisfaction and self-esteem in young girls: a prospective study. Dev Psychol. 2006;42(5):929–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Durkin SJ, Paxton SJ, Sorbello M. An integrative model of the impact of exposure to idealized female images on adolescent girls’ body satisfaction. J Appl Soc Psychol. 2007;35(5):1092–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Ricciardelli LA, McCabe MP, Holt KE, Finemore J. A biopsychosocial model for understanding body image and body change strategies among children. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2003;24:475–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Yamamiya Y, Shroff H, Thompson JK. The Tripartite influence model of body image and eating disturbance: a replication with a Japanese sample. Int J Eat Disord. 2008;41(1):88–91. doi:10.1002/eat.20444.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Rideout VJ, Foehr UG, Roberts DF. Generation M2: media in the lives of 8- to 18-year-olds. The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. 2010. http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/8010.pdf. Accessed 22 Jun, 2012.

  34. Gutnick AL, Robb M, Takeuchi L, Kotler J. Always connected: the new digital media habits of young children. 2010. New York: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop. http://www.ictliteracy.info/rf.pdf/jgcc_alwaysconnected.pdf. Accessed 22 Jun, 2012.

  35. Anschutz DJ, Spruijt-Metz D, Van Strien T, Engels RCME. The direct effect of thin ideal focused adult television on young girls’ ideal body. Body Image. 2011;8:26–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Lawrie Z, Sullivan EA, Davies PS, Hill RJ. Body change strategies in children: relationship to age and gender. Eat Disord. 2007;8:357–63.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Warren C, Schoen A, Shafer K. Media internalization and social comparison as predictors of eating pathology among Latino adolescents: the moderating effect of gender and generational status. Sex Roles. 2010;63:712–24. doi:10.1007/s1199-010-9876-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Dohnt HK, Tiggeman M. Body image concerns in young girls: the role of peers and the media prior to adolescence. J Youth Adol. 2006;35:135–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Grabe S, Ward ML, Hyde JS. The role of the media in body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychol Bull. 2008;134:460–76. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Groesz LM, Levine MP, Murnen SK. The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: a meta-analytic review. Int J Eat Disord. 2002;31:1–16. doi:10.1002/eat.10005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Bell BT, Dittmar H. Does media type matter? The role of identification in adolescent girls’ media consumption and the impact of different thin-ideal media on body image. Sex Roles. 2011;65:478–90. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9964-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Gondoli DM, Corning AF, Blodgett Salafia EH, Bucchianeri MM, Fitzsimmons EE. Heterosocial involvement, peer pressure for thinness, and body dissatisfaction among young adolescent girls. Body Image. 2011;8(2):143–8. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.12.005.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Sands ER, Wardle J. Internalization of ideal body shapes in 9–12-year old girls. Int J Eat Disord. 2003;33:193–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Dittmar H, Halliwell E, Ive S. Does Barbie make girls want to be thin? The effect of experimental exposure to images of dolls on the body image of 5- to 8-year-old girls. Dev Psychol. 2006;42(2):283–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Thompson JK, Stice E. Thin-ideal internalization: mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2001;10:181–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Murnen SK, Smolak L, Mills JA, Good L. Thin, sexy women, and strong, muscular men: grade-school children’s responses to objectified images of men and women. Sex Roles. 2003;49:427–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Jones DC, Crawford JK. The peer appearance culture during adolescence: gender and body mass variations. J Youth Adol. 2006;35:257–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Eisenberg ME, Neumark-Sztainer D. Friends’ dieting and disordered eating behaviors among adolescents five years later: findings from Project EAT. J Adol Health. 2010;47:67–73. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.12.030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Luce KH, Crowther JH, Pole M. Eating disorder examination questionnaire (EDE-Q): norms for undergraduate women. Int J Eat Disord. 2008;41:273–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. American College Health Association. National college health assessment: reference group data report. Linthicum, MD: Author; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Berg KC, Frazier P, Sherr L. Change in eating disorder attitudes and behavior in college women: prevalence and predictors. Eat Behav. 2009;10:137–42. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2009.03.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Neighbors LA, Sobal J. Prevalence and magnitude of body weight and shape dissatisfaction among university students. Eat Behav. 2007;8:429–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Vohs KD, Heatherton TF, Herrin M. Disordered eating and the transition to college: a prospective study. Int J Eat Disord. 2001;29:280–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Gilbert N, Meyer C. Fear of negative evaluation and eating attitudes: a replication and extension study. Int J Eat Disord. 2005;37:360–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Rodgers R, Chabrol H, Paxton SJ. An exploration of the tripartite influence model of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among Australian and French college women. Body Image. 2011;8:208–15. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.04.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Dittmar H, Howard S. Thin-ideal internalization and social comparison tendency as moderators of media models’ impact on women’s body-focused anxiety. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2004;23(6):768–91. doi:10.1521/jscp.23.6.768.54799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Fitzsimmons-Craft EE, Harney MB, Koehler LG, Danzi LE, Riddell MK, Bardone-Cone AM. Explaining the relation between thin ideal internalization and body dissatisfaction among college women: the roles of social comparison and body surveillance. Body Image. 2012;9:43–9. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.09.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Nichter M, Vuckovic N. Fat talk. In: Sault N, editor. Many mirrors: body image and social relations. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press; 1994. p. 109–31.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Salk RH, Engeln-Maddox R. “If you’re fat, then I’m humongous!”: frequency, content, and impact of fat talk among college women. Psychol Womens Q. 2011;35(1):18–28. doi:10.1177/0361684310384107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Ousley L, Cordero ED, White S. Fat talk among college students: how undergraduates communicate regarding food and body weight, shape, and appearance. Eat Disord. 2008;16:73–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Liechty T. “Yes, I worry about my weight…but for the most part I’m content with my body”: older women’s body dissatisfaction alongside contentment. J Women Aging. 2012;24:70–88. doi:10.1080/08952841.2012.638873.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Liechty T, Yarnal CM. Older women’s body image: a lifecourse perspective. Ageing Soc. 2010;30:1197–218. doi:10.1017/S0144686X10000346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Tiggemann M. Body image across the adult life span: stability and change. Body Image. 2004;1(1): 29–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Webster J, Tiggemann M. The relationship between women’s body satisfaction and self-image across the life span: the role of cognitive control. J Genet Psychol. 2003;164(2):241–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Baker L, Gringart E. Body image and self-esteem in older adulthood. Ageing Soc. 2009;29:977–95. doi:10.1017/S0144686X09008721.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Pruis TA, Janowsky JS. Assessment of body image in younger and older women. J Gen Psychol. 2010;137(3):225–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. The Renfrew Center. Midlife. http://renfrewcenter.com/services/treatment-tracks/midlife. Accessed 10 Aug, 2012.

  68. Gagne DA, Von Holle A, Brownley KA, Runfola CD, Hofmeier S, Branch KE, Bulik CM. Eating disorder symptoms and weight and shape concerns in a large web-based convenience sample of women ages 50 and above: results of the gender and body image (GABI) study. Int J Eat Disord. 2012;45:832–44. doi:10.1002/eat.22030.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. McLean SA, Paxton SJ, Wertheim EH. A body image and disordered eating intervention for women in midlife: a randomized controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2011;79(6):751–8. doi:10.1037/a0026094.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Hatch LR. Beyond gender difference: adaptation to ageing in the life-course perspective. Amityville, NY: Baywood; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Jones JM, Lawson ML, Daneman D, Olmsted MP, Rodin G. Eating disorders in adolescent females with and without type 1 diabetes: cross sectional study. BMJ. 2000;320:1563–1566. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC27398/pdf/1563.pdf. Accessed 8 Feb, 2013.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Goebel-Fabbri AE. Diabetes and eating disorders. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2008;2(3):530–2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Howe CJ, Jawad AJ, Kelly SD, Lipman TH. Weight-related concerns and behaviors in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc. 2008;13:376–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Kichler JC, Foster C, Opipari-Arrigan L. The relationship between negative communication and body image dissatisfaction in adolescent females with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. J Health Psychol. 2008;13(3):336–47. doi:10.1177/1359105307088138.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Anderson-Fye E. Cross-cultural issues in body image among children and adolescents. In: Smolak L, Thompson JK, editors. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: assessment, prevention, and treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009. p. 113–33.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  76. Chen H, Jackson T. Predictors of changes in weight esteem among mainland Chinese adolescents: a longitudinal analysis. Dev Psychol. 2009;45(6):1618–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Crawford J, Lee I-C, Portnoy G, Gurung A, Khati D, Jha P, Regmi AC. Objectified body consciousness in a developing country: a comparison of mothers and daughters in the US and Nepal. Sex Roles. 2009;60:174–85. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9521-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Frederick DA, Forbes GB, Berezovskaya A. Female body dissatisfaction and perceptions of the attractive female body in Ghana, the Ukraine, and the United States. Psychol Top. 2008;17(2):203–19.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Holmqvist K, Frisén A. Body dissatisfaction across cultures: findings and research problems. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2010;18:133–46. doi:10.1002/erv.965.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Levine MP, Smolak L. Cultural influences on body image and the eating disorders. In: Agras WS, editor. The oxford handbook of eating disorders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2010. p. 223–46.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Swami V, et al. The attractive female body weight and female body dissatisfaction in 26 countries across 10 world regions: results of the International Body Project I. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2010;36(3):309–25. doi:10.1177/ 0146167209359702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. McHugh TLF, Kowalski KC. ‘A new view of body image’: a school-based participatory action research project with young Aboriginal women. Action Res. 2011;9(3):220–41. doi:10.1177/1476750310388052.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. The Levin Institute – The State University of New York. Globalization and eating disorders. http://www.globalization101.org/globalization-and-eating-disorders-2/. Accessed 8 Jul, 2012.

  84. Gillen MM, Lefkowitz ES. Body size perceptions in racially/ethnically diverse men and women: implications for body image and self-esteem. N Am J Psychol. 2011;13(3):447–68.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Grabe S, Hyde JS. Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2006;132(4):622–40. doi:10.1037/ 0033-2909.132.4.622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Hesse-Biber S, Livingstone S, Ramirez D, Barko EB, Johnson AL. Racial identity and body image among Black female college students attending predominately White colleges. Sex Roles. 2010;63:697–711. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9862-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Sabik NJ, Cole ER, Ward LM. Are all minority women equally buffered from negative body image? intra-ethnic moderators of the buffering hypothesis. Psychol Womens Q. 2010;34:139–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Sussman NM, Truong N, Lim J. Who experiences “American the beautiful”?: ethnicity moderating the effect of acculturation on body image and risks for eating disorders among immigrant women. Int J Intercult Relat. 2007;31:29–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Franko DL, Edwards George JB. Overweight, eating behaviors, and body image in ethnically diverse youth. In: Smolak L, Thompson JK, editors. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: assessment, prevention, and treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009. p. 97–112.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  90. Anderson DA, Murray AD. Psychological assessment of the eating disorders. In: Agras WS, editor. The oxford handbook of eating disorders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2010. p. 249–58.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Thompson JK. The (mis)measurement of body image: ten strategies to improve assessment for applied and research purposes. Body Image. 2004;1:7–14. doi:10.1016/S1740-1445(03)00004-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Banasiak SJ, Wertheim EH, Koerner J, Voudouris NJ. Test–retest reliability and internal consistency of a variety of measures of dietary restraint and body concerns in a sample of adolescent girls. Int J Eat Disord. 2001;29:85–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Reed DL, Thompson KJ, Brannick MT, Sacco WP. Development and validation of the Physical Appearance State and Trait Anxiety Scale (PASTAS). J Anxiety Disord. 1991;54:323–32. doi:10.1016/0887-6185(91)90032-O.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Cash TF, Fleming EC, Alindogan LS, Whitehead A. Beyond body image as a trait: the development and validation of the Body Image States Scale. Eat Disord. 2002;10:103–13. doi:10.1080/1064026029 0081678.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Bell BT, Lawton R, Dittmar H. The impact of thin models in music videos on adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction. Body Image. 2007;4:137–45. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.02.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Túry F, Güleç H, Kohls E. Assessment methods for eating disorders and body image disorders. J Psychosom Res. 2010;60:601–11. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.05.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Allison DB. Handbook of assessment methods for eating behaviors and weight-related problems. 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Cash TF. The body image workbook: an eight-step program for learning to life your looks. 2nd ed. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Thompson JK, van den Berg P. Measuring body image attitudes among adolescents and adults. In: Cash TG, Pruzinsky T, editors. Body image: a handbook of theory, research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Guilford; 2002. p. 142–53.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Yanover T, Thompson JK. Assessment of body image in children and adolescents. In: Smolak L, Thompson JK, editors. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: assessment, prevention, and treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009. p. 177–92.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  101. Cash TF, Fleming EC. The impact of body-image experiences: development of the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory. Int J Eat Disord. 2002; 31:455–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Cash TF, Szymanski ML. The development and validation of the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire. J Pers Assess. 1995;64:466–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Garner D. Manual for the eating disorder inventory-2 (EDI-2). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Garner D, Olmsted M. Manual for the eating disorder inventory-2 (EDI-2). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Littleton HL, Axsom D, Pury CLS. Development of the body image concern inventory. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43(2):229–41. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2003.12.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Shisslack CM, Renger R, Sharpe T, et al. Development and evaluation of the McKnight Risk Factor Survey for assessing potential risk and protective factors for disordered eating in preadolescent and adolescent girls. Int J Eat Disord. 1999;25:195–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Wooley OW, Roll S. The color-a-person body dissatisfaction test: stability, internal consistency, validity, and factor structure. J Pers Assess. 1991;56:395–413.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Cash TF, Grasso K. The norms and stability of new measures of the multidimensional body image construct. Body Image. 2005;2:199–203. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Cash TF, Phillips KA, Santos MT, Hrabosky JI. Measuring “negative body image”: validation of the body image disturbance questionnaire in a non-clinical population. Body Image. 2004;1:363–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Cash TF, Melnyk S, Hrabosky JI. The assessment of body-image investment: An extensive revision of the Appearance Schemas Inventory. Int J Eat Disord. 2004;35:305–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Cash TF, Santos MT, Williams EF. Coping with body-image threats and challenges: validation of the Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory. J Psychosom Res. 2005;58:191–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Cash TF, Jakatdar T, Williams EF. The body image quality of life inventory: further validation with college men and women. Body Image. 2004;1:279–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Gardner RM, Jappe LM, Gardner L. Development and validation of a new figural drawing scale for body-image assessment: the BIAS-BD. J Clin Psychol. 2009;65(1):113–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Cooper PJ, Taylor MJ, Cooper Z, Fairburn CG. The development and validation of the Body Shape Questionnaire. Int J Eat Disord. 1987;6:485–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Dowson J, Henderson L. The validity of a short version of the Body Shape Questionnaire. Psychiatry Res. 2001;102:263–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Warren CS, Cepeda-Benito A, Gleaves DH, et al. English and Spanish versions of the Body Shape Questionnaire: measurement equivalence across ethnicity and clinical status. Int J Eat Disord. 2008;41:265–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Gardner DM. Eating disorder inventory™ (EDI™-3). Lutz, FL: PAR; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Thompson JK, van den Berg P, Roehrig M, et al. The Sociocultural attitudes towards appearance scale-3 (SATAQ-3): development and validation. Int J Eat Disord. 2004;35(3):293–304. doi:10.1002/eat.10257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Truby H, Paxton SJ. Development of the children’s body image scale. Br J Clin Psychol. 2002;41:184–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Truby H, Paxton SJ. The children’s body image scale: reliability and use with international standards for body mass index. Br J Clin Psychol. 2008;47:119–24. doi:10.1348/014466507X251261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Domina T, Heuberger R, Macgillivray M. Use of 3-dimensional body scans for body-image research. Percept Mot Skills. 2008;106:653–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Aleong R, Duchesne S, Paus T. Assessment of adolescent body perception: development and characterization of a novel tool for morphing images of adolescent bodies. Behav Res Meth. 2007;39(3):651–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  123. Piran N. Prevention of eating disorders: a review of outcome evaluation research. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci. 2005;42(3):172–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Sinton MM, Taylor CB. Prevention: current status and underlying theory. In: Agras WS, editor. The oxford handbook of eating disorders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2010. p. 307–30.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Massey-Stokes M, Barton BA, Golman M, Holland DJ. An ecological approach to the prevention of eating disorders in children and adolescents. In: Goodheart K, Clopton J, Robert-Mccomb J, editors. Eating disorders in women and children: prevention, stress management, and treatment. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2012. p. 225–67.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Massey-Stokes M, Stokes SB. Social-emotional learning, interpersonal skills, and resilience. In: Goodheart K, Clopton J, Robert-Mccomb J, editors. Eating disorders in women and children: prevention, stress management, and treatment. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2012. p. 283–311.

    Google Scholar 

  127. O’Connell ME, Boat T, Warner KE, eds. Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: progress and possibilities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2009. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK32775/ pdf/TOC.pdf. Accessed 19 Jul, 2012.

  128. Neumark-Sztainer D. Addressing the spectrum of adolescent weight-related problems: engaging parents and communities. Prev Res. 2007;14:11–4.

    Google Scholar 

  129. O’Dea J. Everybody’s different: a positive approach to teaching about health, puberty, body image, nutrition, self-esteem and obesity prevention. Camberwell, VIC: ACER Press; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Shaw H, Ng J, Stice E. Integrating eating disorder and obesity prevention programs for adolescents. Prev Res. 2007;14:18–20.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Stock SC, Evans MS, Plessis S, et al. Healthy buddies: a novel, peer-led health promotion program for the prevention of obesity and eating disorders in children in elementary school. Pediatrics. 2007;120:e1059–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Neumark-Sztainer D, Levine MP, Paxton SJ, et al. Prevention of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: what next? Eat Disord. 2006;14:265–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Massey-Stokes M. Body image and eating disturbances in children and adolescents. In: Robert-McComb JJ, Norman R, Zumwalt M, editors. The active female. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 2008. p. 57–79.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  134. Stice E, Shaw H, Marti CN. A meta-analytic review of eating disorder prevention programs: encouraging findings. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2007;3:207–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Levine M, Smolak L. Recent developments and promising directions in the prevention of negative body image and disordered eating children and adolescents. In: Smolak L, Thompson JK, editors. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: assessment, prevention, and treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009. p. 215–39.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  136. Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, editors. Health education and health behavior: theory, research, and practice. 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Sallis JF, Owen N, Fisher EB. Ecological models of health behavior. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, editors. Health education and health behavior: theory, research, and practice. 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2008. p. 465–85.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Andreasen A. Social marketing: definition and domain. J Publ Pol Market. 1993;13:108–14.

    Google Scholar 

  140. McAlister AL, Perry CL, Parcel GS. How individuals, environments, and health behaviors interact: social cognitive theory. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, editors. Health education and health behavior: theory, research, and practice. 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2008. p. 169–88.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Storey JD, Saffitz GB, Rimón JG. Social marketing. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, editors. Health education and health behavior: theory, research, and practice. 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2008. p. 435–64.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Kincaid DL. From innovation to social norm: bounded normative influence. J Health Com. 2004;91(1):37–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Bauer KW, Haines J, Neumark-Sztainer N. Obesity prevention: strategies to improve effectiveness and reduce harm. In: Smolak L, Thompson JK, editors. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: assessment, prevention, and treatment. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009. p. 241–60.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  144. Black MM, Young-Hyman D. Introduction to the special issue: pediatric overweight. J Pediatr Psychol. 2007;32(1):1–5. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsl042.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Neumark-Sztainer D, Croll J, Story M, Hannan PJ, French SA, Perry C. Ethnic/racial differences in weight-related concerns and behaviors among adolescent girls and boys: findings from project EAT. J Psychosom Res. 2002;53:963–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Feinberg-Walker HS, Barrett S, Shure J. Inside/outside self-discovery for teens: strategies to promote resilience, relationships, and positive body image. Santa Cruz, CA: ToucanEd; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Kater K. Healthy body image: teaching kids to eat and love their bodies too! 2nd ed. Seattle, WA: National Eating Disorders Association; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Escoto Ponce de León MC, Mancilla Díaz JM, Camacho Ruiz EJ. A pilot study of the clinical and statistical significance of a program to reduce eating disorder risk factors in children. Eat Weight Disord. 2008;13(3):111–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Golman M. A study to evaluate the effectiveness of the Girls in Motion program in improving body satisfaction in preadolescent girls, Ph.D. dissertation, Texas Woman’s University, 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Stice E, Shaw H, Becker CB, Rohde P. Dissonance-based interventions for the prevention of eating disorders: using persuasion principles to promote health. Prevent Sci. 2008;9:114–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  151. McVey GL, Lieberman M, Voorberg N, Wardrope D, Blackmore E. School-based peer support groups: a new approach to the prevention of disordered eating. Eat Disord. 2003;11:169–85. doi:10.1080/10640260390218297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Steese S, Dollette M, Phillips W, Hossfeld E, Matthews G, Taormina G. Understanding Girls’ Circle as an intervention on perceived social support, body image, self-efficacy, locus of control, and self-esteem. Adolescence. 2006;41:55–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Mask L, Blanchard CM. The protective role of general self-determination against ‘thin ideal’ media exposure on women’s body image and eating-related concerns. J Health Psychol. 2010;16(3):489–99. doi:10.1177/1359105310385367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Forbes G, Adams-Curtis LE, Rade B, Jaberg P. Body dissatisfaction in women and men: the role of gender-typing and self-esteem. Sex Roles. 2001;44:461–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  155. Viladrich A, Yeh M-C, Bruning N, Weiss R. “Do real women have curves?” paradoxical body images among Latinas in New York City. J Immigrant Minority Health. 2009;11:20–28. doi:10/1007/s10903-008-9176-9.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Daubenmeier JJ. The relationship of yoga, body awareness, and body responsiveness to self-objectification and disordered eating. Psychol Womens Q. 2005;29:207–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  157. Schiavo R. Health communication: from theory to practice. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Audience insights: communicating to teens (aged 12-17). http://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/Audience/AudienceInsight_teens.pdf. Accessed 1 Feb, 2013.

  159. Ammary-Risch NJ, Zambon A, McCormack BK. Communicating health information effectively. In: Fertman CI, Allensworth DD, editors. Health promotion programs: from theory to practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2010. p. 203–31.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health, Exercise, and Sports Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Jacalyn J. Robert-McComb Ph.D., FACSM, ACSM P.D.

  2. Department of Health Studies, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX, USA

    Marilyn Massey-Stokes Ed.D., C.H.E.S., F.A.S.H.A., I.C.®

Authors
  1. Jacalyn J. Robert-McComb Ph.D., FACSM, ACSM P.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marilyn Massey-Stokes Ed.D., C.H.E.S., F.A.S.H.A., I.C.®
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jacalyn J. Robert-McComb Ph.D., FACSM, ACSM P.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health, Exercise and Sport Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Jacalyn J. Robert-McComb Ph.D., F.A.C.S.M., A.C.S.M., P.D. (Professor of Exercise Physiology) (Professor of Exercise Physiology)

  2. Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Reid L. Norman Ph.D. (Professor and Chair) (Professor and Chair)

  3. Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Mimi Zumwalt M.D. (Associate Professor Head of Sports Medicine) (Associate Professor Head of Sports Medicine)

Appendices

Appendix 1: Body Image Quality of Life Inventory

Different people have different feelings about their physical appearances. These feelings are called “body image.” Some people are generally satisfied with their looks, whereas others are dissatisfied. At the same time, people differ in terms of how their body image experiences affect other aspects of their lives. Body image may have positive effects, negative effects, or no effects at all. Listed below are various ways that your own body image may or may not influence your life. For each item, circle how and how much our feelings about you experience affect that aspect of your life. Before answering each item, think carefully about the answer that is most accurate about how your body image usually affects you.

BIQLI items

−3

−2

−1

0

+1

+2

+3

 

Very negative effect

Moderate negative effect

Slight negative effect

No effect

Slight positive effect

Moderate positive effect

Very positive effect

 1. My basic feelings about myself—feelings of personal adequacy and self-worth

       

 2. My feelings about my adequacy as a man or women—feelings of masculinity or femininity

       

 3. My interactions with people of my own sex

       

 4. My interactions with people of the other sex

       

 5. My experiences when I meet new people

       

 6. My experiences at work or at school

       

 7. My relationships with friends

       

 8. My relationships with family members

       

 9. My day-to-day emotions

       

10. My satisfaction with my life in general

       

11. My feelings of acceptability as a sexual partner

       

12. My enjoyment of my sex life

       

13. My ability to control what and how much I eat

       

14. My ability to control my weight

       

15. My activities for physical exercise

       

16. My willingness to do things that might call attention to my appearance

       

17. My daily “grooming” activities (i.e., getting dressed and physically ready for the day)

       

18. How confident I feel in my everyday life

       

19. How happy I feel in my everyday life

       
  1. Reprinted from Int J Eat Disord, 31(4), Cash TF, Fleming EC, Impact of Body Image Experiences: Development of the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory, 455–460, 2002, with permission from John Wiley and Sons

Appendix 2: Body Image Concern Inventory

Please rate how often you have had the described feeling or performed the described behavior on a Likert scale anchored by 1 = “never” and 5 = “always”

  

1

2

3

4

5

  

Never

Seldom

Sometimes

Often

Always

 1.

I am dissatisfied with some aspect of my appearance

     

 2.

I spend a significant amount of time checking my appearance in the mirror

     

 3.

I feel others are speaking negatively of my appearance

     

 4.

I am reluctant to engage in social activities when my appearance does not meet my satisfaction

     

 5.

I feel there are certain aspects of my appearance that are extremely unattractive

     

 6.

I buy cosmetic products to try to improve my appearance

     

 7.

I seek reassurance from others about my appearance

     

 8.

I feel there are certain aspects of my appearance that I would like to change

     

 9.

I am ashamed of some part of my body

     

10.

I compare my appearance to that of fashion models or others

     

11.

I try to camouflage certain flaws in my appearance

     

12.

I examine flaws in my appearance

     

13.

I have bought clothing to hide a certain aspect of my appearance

     

14.

I feel others are more physically attractive than me

     

15.

I have considered consulting/consulted some sort of medical expert regarding flaws in my appearance

     

16.

I have missed social activities because of my appearance

     

17.

I have been embarrassed to leave the house because of my appearance

     

18.

I fear that others will discover my flaws in appearance

     

19.

I have avoided looking at my appearance in the mirror

     
  1. Reprinted from Behav Res Ther, 43(2), Littleton H, Axsom D, Pury CLS, Development of the Body Image Concern Inventory, 229–241, 2005, with permission from Elsevier

Appendix 3: Physical Appearance State and Trait Anxiety Scale: Trait

The statements listed below are to be used to describe how anxious, tense, or nervous you feel in general (i.e., usually) about your body or specific parts of your body.

Please read each statement and circle the number that best indicates the extent to which each statement holds true in general. Remember, there are no right or wrong answers.

Never

Seldom

Sometimes

Often

Always

1

2

3

4

5

In general I feel anxious, tense, or nervous about

 1. The extent to which I look overweight

1

2

3

4

5

 2. My thighs

1

2

3

4

5

 3. My buttocks

1

2

3

4

5

 4. My hips

1

2

3

4

5

 5. My stomach

1

2

3

4

5

 6. My legs

1

2

3

4

5

 7. My waist

1

2

3

4

5

 8. My muscle tone

1

2

3

4

5

 9. My ears

1

2

3

4

5

10. My lips

1

2

3

4

5

11. My wrists

1

2

3

4

5

12. My hands

1

2

3

4

5

13. My forehead

1

2

3

4

5

14. My neck

1

2

3

4

5

15. My chin

1

2

3

4

5

16. My feet

1

2

3

4

5

  1. Reprinted from J Anxiety Disord, 5(4), Reed, DL, Thompson, JK, Brannick, MT., Sacco WP, Development and Validation of the Physical Appearance State and Trait Anxiety Scale (PASTAS), 323–332, 1991, with permission from Elsevier

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Robert-McComb, J.J., Massey-Stokes, M. (2014). Body Image Concerns Throughout the Lifespan. In: Robert-McComb, J.J., Norman, R.L., Zumwalt, M. (eds) The Active Female. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8884-2_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8884-2_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-8883-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-8884-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation